Teaching The Kindergarten Child

Teaching the Kindergarten Child

Under the General Editorship of
Willard 6. Spalding

Chaiimaa, Divifimi of Educatioa Fonlasd State College

HAZEL M. LAMBERT

Fresno Slate College

Teaching

the

Kindergarten

Child

MLSU - CENTRAL LIBRARY

to Ann Elizabeth Archer

Mary Doucet

and ’kindergartners eceryudiere

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Editor’s Foreword

Of the many significant devdopmenU in American education in
the twentieth century, not the least in importance is the growth
of the kindergarten movement— the increas© in publicly and pri-
vately supported schools for four* and five-year-olds, and in the
number end relative proportion of children of this age who at-
tend kindergarten or nursery school.

This downward extension of education services broadens the
school’s responsibility for the development of future citizens.
Tlie kindergarten teacher is in a unique position; because there
Is no formal body of subject matter to be covered in the kinder-
garten, she Is free to devote her energy, time, and attention to
aspects of the child’s growth which all too frequently are slighted
at the upper educational levels. She can give him a great deal
of help in learning to get along with others, for example; she can
pay close attention to his physical and emotional well-being: and
she can help him leam to express his Joys and fears and percep-
tions in language and In various creative media.

The kindergarten teacher has certain special problems, for,
as Dr. Lambert points out, the gap between kindergarten and
first grade is a large one— perhaps the largest in the entire edu-
cational system. The task of the kindergarten teacher is to help
the child to bridge that gap; she must nurture his growth in

every area— physical, sodal, and emotional as well as intellectual
—so that he is prepared to attadc die learning experiences-again,
in every area— that he %vill encounter in first grade.

But the kindergarten teacher has an additional, perhaps
related, task. Although she constantly strives to ease the child's
future transition to fint grade, she also aims to help him to live
fully and richly in the present, to derive joy and satisfaction from
his daily experiences.

The teacher who adopts Dr. Lambert’s very sensible point
of view will accomplish both of these tasks by neither fordng
the child into a preconceived pattern of behavior nor allosving
him to have “free rein” educationally. Rather, she will "cooperate
with the growth process”— which means that she sviH acquire a
knowledge of the principles of growth and development and an
understanding of the individual child, and that she svillhelp each
child to realize his potentialities, guiding him always in the direc*
tlon of increasing mahuity.

Dr. Lambert's common-sense approach to the problems of
teaching young children, her recognition— implidt in every page
—that children are not ndniatuie adults, and her strong emphasis
on the development of democratic values in even the youngest
of our citizens should make this hook an invaluable guide to
teachers and prospective teachers of Idndergaitners.

WniABD B. SPAIDIXO

Author's Preface

Tills is a boolc about four- and five-ycar-olds~how they grow
and learn. It is also a book about teadieis, and what they can
do to encourage the growth and learning of ihe children in tJieir
charge. It is intended for kindergarten teachers as well as for
college students who oro planning to teach in the kindergarten.

The reader will find no "recipes" la this book, for the author
believes that there is no single "best" ivay of tcadiing young
children, just as tliere is no sin^o description that fits all four-
and five-year-olds. The central thesis of tlu’s book, in fact, is that
kindergartners are different— from adults, from older children,
and from one another— and that the teacher’s understanding of
these differences must underb'e her expectations and objectives,
as well as her clioicc of methods and materials, necognizing the
immaturity of four- and five-year-olds, the teacher does not apply
standards of behavior and achievement that are beyond their
capadty; she is sab'sfied svith small signs of progress. Recognizing
the fact that kindergartners have much growing up to do before
they can participate effectively in a formal learning situation, she
concentrates on providing an environment both stimulating and
secure, in which they axe free to test their increasing powers.
And recognizing the wide range of individual differences among
kiadergarten children, she appraises each child's behavior in

vii

terms o£ his mvn level of maturity and rate of development, using
established norms only as occaoonal guideposts.

Kindergartners, like all other school children, are sent to
school in order to leam, but the Imdergarten teacher defines
learning In the broadest possible sense, to include every aspect
of de\-elQpment Although she is alwa^-s asvare of the limitations
imposed by the child’s immaturity, she knows that a four-year-
old is not loo young to leam something of what it means to be
a responsible member of our democratic society. In the modem
kindergarten, therefore, children are given many opportunities to
leam to make decisions, to direct their ossm behavior, to assume
and carry out responsibilities. These learnings— perhaps the most
important contrihuUon of the kindergarten— need not and should
not be deferred; wnth the teacher’s guidance, even kindergaitners
can leam to regulate their own small affairs.

In the last analysis, most of what the child leams in the
kindergarten is self-taught; if the teacher is guided by an under'*
standing of the nature of cbddnn. if she pemdts each child to
grow at his own rate, if she provides the proper educative en*
viroomeot, learning svill inevitably occur. The author has at*
tempted to present a realistic picture of the kind of environment
that will facilitate learning. Imed on extensive teadiing experi-
ence and observation of classroom situations and suppported by
sumnuiics of pertinent research. Tbe principles included here
are applicable to any kindergarten situation, for good teaching
can take place even in overcrowded classrooms and in classrooms
with a paucity of equipment— pnm'ded that the teacher has the
one essential piece of equipment, an understanding of children
in general, and of the individual children in her group.

Tlie discussion problems following each chapter are in-
tended to stimulate thought and to highlight the practical ap-
plications of the text For most of them there is no right or
wrong answer; the teachers response wOl be based on her
philosophy of teaching, her grasp of the human relations in-
rolved, and her undecstaiu^g of the prirraples of child growth

presented in the text. The additional readings suggested at the
end of every cliapter will enable the interested reader to pursue
the study of the nature of younf children still further.

The author ^vishcs to express her deep gratitude to the
many persons who helped in the wrfting of this book-to the
friends, colleagues, and former students who offered advice and
suggestions, and to the kindergartners, who offered Inspiration.
Miss Edith Roscndahl performed an invaluable service by typing
the manuscript, in its several versions. Special thanks are due
Dr. Willard Spalding, ^vhose many sound comments contributed
to the author's education as well as to the improvement of tlie
book.

ItAZEL M. LA^rSERT

Fresno, Cali/.

September J357

Contents

T. Philosophic Backgrounds of the Kindergarten i

2 . Preschool Education Today 28

3 . The Child-Deoelopment Point of View 36

4 . The Kindergarten-Age ChQd 52

5 . The Kindergarten Teacher 67
£. The Kindergarten Day 79

7 . Creative Experiences in Art $8

8 . CreaiiveExperiencesinMusicandDraTnoticPlay 120

9 . Experiences in Language 136
10 - Play and Games iGz

n. Social-Studies Experiences 18$

12 . Health and Safety 206

13 . Learning the Ways of Democracy 223

14 . Experiences in Science 238

15 . Developing Quantltatloe Concepts 253

16 . The Exceptional Child 287

17 . School, Parents, and Community 291

18 . On to First Grade 308
appendix:

Publishers of Informational Materials 324
Selected Films and Filmstrips 325
INDEX 329

Xbow you what it is to be a duld? ... It is to bdieve in love,
to beL'ev’e in loveliness, to believe in belief; it is to be so little that
the elves can reach to whisper in your ear; it is to turn pumpldns
into coaches and mice into horses, lowness into loftiness and
nothing into rn'erjihing. . . .

Fnndis ‘numpson. DtiMin Rreiew, July 190S

1. Pfiilosophfc Backgrounds
of the Kindergarten

The Jcmdergarten as we know it is laigely a nineleenth-centurj*
invention, but its roots are remote in time. The problem of how
to induct young children into the culture has engaged the ener-
gies of philosophers and educators throughout the ages. Under-
standing of the nature of children and recognition of their special
needs have come slowly; many of the theories and practices of
early educators have had to be discarded in the Ugbt of our
present knowledge. But many of the solutions that they proposed
have persisted, sometimes in modified form. The modem kinder-
garten is the fruit of centuries of thought and experimentation.

Plato and Early Childhood Edvcallen

Long before the birth of Christ, the Greek philosopher Plato
pointed out the importance of the early years of childhood and
the responsibility of the community for educating its young. Like
others of his day, Plato believed that deformed children and the
offspring of "inferior” people should be “put away in some secret
place”; yet he ^vas sufficiently advanced to make a community
nursery part of his ideal commonwealth. One of his chief concerns
in the Beptibiic was to outline a ^tem of education that would
develop good citizens for the perfect state he envisaged. The

I

system that he formulated was to influence educational thought
for many centuries. Plato claimed that each child was fitted hy
nature for some special task-feom simple laborer to ruler-aod
that the goal of education was to prepare him for that task He
thus was "modern' in his idea that the individual d^erences
among duldren should be recognized by the schools, although
we today do not take so limited a view of the childs potenti-
alities.

The Vision of Do Felire

For several centuries after Plato's tiinc, history records no
outstanding educator who concerned himself primarily with the
training of j-oung children. In 1416, however, a copy of Quin-
tilians InstituiUmis ofatoriae, written in the first century a-d., was
disco^•ered. The discovery of this work, which described in detail
the old Boman theory of education, gave impetus to the de\-elop-
ment of 'court schools' throughout Italy. Many children of the
aobihty and of the banking and merchant class were sent to
these schools rather than to the established leL’gious schools.

One of the most inSuential teachers in the court schools
was Vittoiino da Feltre (i37fl'a446), who established a schtnl
in Mantua for boys from the age of nine or ten through the age
of twenty-one. Although da Feltre s pupils were older riian today’s
kindergartners, the principles by which they were educated were
both ^e^•olutio^a^y for the time and strikingly similar to many
of the principles of modem Idndergarten edneatioo. The em-
phasis in da Feltres school was on physical activities and the
dcsnlopment of good manners and morals. He insisted on light,
pleasant sruroundings for children, and believed that education
should be fun. He saw the \'alue of alternating periods of study
and play and recognized the need for variety in the child s activi-
ties to combat fatigue and boredom. Unlike the rather strict
religious schools of his day, da Feltre’s school emphasized self-
go%Tmment, as a means of character education as well as disd-

2 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

pline. lie believed that teachers should lead, not coerce, cIuTdren,
and appreciated the importance of recognizing individual dif*
ferenees among pupUs.

John Amos Comenlus and The Greof Didactic

Another of the earliest educators to appredafe lire impor-
tance of training for young children was John Amos Comenlus
(1592-1670), a Moravian bishop who, when exiled from his
native country, took charge of a school in Poland. As the result
of his experiences, he wrote The Great Dfdoctie, in whicli he
formulated the principles underlying education as he saw it.
He believed that all education must be carefully graded and
arranged to follow the order of nature, proceeding from the easy
to the difficult, from the near to the remote, from the general to
the specific, from the known to the unknown- Like his contem-
poraries, Comenius believed In the innate depraWty of man.
However, he also believed that mans depraved tendendes could
be redirected through proper education and nurture begun at
an early age.

In teaching >'oung children, Comenlus urged tliat the teacher
appeal to the child's sensory perceptions and Uiat he use materia!
based on the child's o\vn experiences. To illustrate this tlicory,
be published, in 1658, Orhuj sensaaUum pidus, a book designed
to teach Latin to young children through pictures of familiar
objects. This book stood witljoul a competitor for more than a
century; an American edition was published os late as i8to.

Comenius formulated many other principles of modem child-
hood education. Fcjr example, he oppredated the child's reed for
physical acthity, asserting tliat 'the more a child is cmploj-ed,
runs abmit and plays, tlie sweeter b ib sleep, tlie mere easily
does the stomacli digest, and tlic more quickly docs the cliild
grow and flourish, in bolii mind and body." He empimized the
Importance of play, which he considered an integral part of cliild
life.

Pliflosophlc DaeVgwundf of the Kindergarten 3

Rousseau, Champton of the Rtglits of Children

The French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
was one of the most vocal diampions of the rights of children
in the modem era. Although much of his psydiology today seems
faulty, he correctly laid great emphasis on the need for studying
the child in order to design an adequate educational program
for him. Unlike many of lus contemporaries, Rousseau did not
beh'eve the cliild to be e\'il by nature. Rousseau recognized indi-
vidual differences; he said that native equipment determines
what the child will become. He protested against the tendency
to consider children as miniahire adults, insisting that each age
of man has its ovm characteristics and needs, and that educators
must take account of this. Rousseaus emphasis upon study of
the child and his nature had great infiueoce on the work of both
Froebel and Pestalozzi and. indeed, on the best educational
practice today.

Peslalenl, the Practical Theorist

In contrast to Rousseau, the Siviss Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi
(1746-1827) was a teacher who developed his theories in actual
association >v1th children. Like Rousseau, Pestalozzi believed that
man was good by original nature. Education to him >vas largely
a process of watching the child develop; the child was "a bud
not yet opened.”

Pestalozzi shared Rousseau s belief that individual differences
condition development. ”It may be judicious,” he svrote, "to treat
some pupils with marked attentiOQ and to give up the idea of
bringing others to high perfection.” Pestalozzi made it clear,
however, that a diUds social status or his appearance must not
be allowed to limit his opportunity for education.

like Comenins, Pestalooi reco^iized the value of sensory
impressions in teaching young children. He anticipated Dewey
in asserting that education b^^os at birth, when impressions

4 Teaching the Kindergarten CSuid

first be^ to crowd in on the diOd. TIjs catursl order of educa-
tion, he believed, was to give the child many experiences with
things before he has verbal instruction. This is quite in harmony
witli present views, as is his emphasis on adapting materials of
instruction to the developmental les-el of the child. Pestalorri
put into practice Rousseaus exhortation to study the child. He
found what he believed to be the way in which children learn
best, and, although in none of his writings did he formulate his
philosophy clearly, bis example has markedly influenced educators
of young children throu^out the world.

Froebel, the "Father of the Kindergarten"

One of those who were strongly influenced by Pestalozzi was
tbe German Friedrich Froebel (lySa-iSga), who spent several
years as a teacher in Pestafozzrs Institute at Yverdon, in Switzer-
land. It was Froebel who first formulated a comprehensive theory
of early childhood education and a detailed method for carrying
It out. After some experience in teaclung older boys, Froebel
conduded that the early years are of ^eat importance and should
receive more careful attention. Under Pestalozzfs influence, he
became deeply impressed with the value of music and play in
tbe educaUon of young chUdren. His initial attempt to establish
a private school in which the play idea, music, and activity
motivated by the interest of the children themselves svere upper-
most failed, but Froebel did not lose his conviction that educa-
tional reforms were most rteeded in the early years of childhood.
Several years after Ids first failure, Froebel started another school
for young chUdren in which play, ^mes, songs, and other activi-
ties were the domiiuting characteristics. This second school was
a success, and in 1840 Froebel invented the name Tdndergaiten*
(children’s garden) to describe the kind of school in which he
believed.

From Our point of view, Froebel’s kindergarten offered a
rather formalized type of education, but for its time it was rev-

Philosophic Padr^ounds of the Kindergarten 5

olutionaiy. The core of the cumcoliim wzs the “gifts" and "occu-
pation" series, by means of which the child was introduced to
various creative and constructive activities ns well as to the rudi-
ments of counting and measuring.

The “gifts" consisted of various materials used to teach the
child the nature of form, numher, and measurement. The first
“gift" was sLt soft colored l»lls; the second included a cube, a
cylinder, and a sphere; the diird was a number of sections which
together formed a cube. By nianipulating these materials in pre-
scribed fashion, the child learned to count, combine, divide,
make fractions out of wholes, arrange in order, measure, and
analyze.

The “occupations" consisted of the essentials for such activi-
ties as modeling, drawing, sewing, and coloring. Again the use
of materials \v3S prescribed. By following a carefully conceived
and formulated plan, the child learned to manipulate clay, cut;
string beads, sew, sveave, fold paper, make cardboard designs,
draw freehand, trace, paste, and so on. A mininum of free play
was permitted. The ri^dity of Froebel’s system goes counter to
our modem emphasis on (tee oeatirity, but Froebel was the
first to attempt to proside activities for the development and
growth of children.

Froebel recognized the value of other manual and constnm-
tive actirities as well He gave new educational emphasis to
finger plays, sin^g, games, and nature study. Games played
with lively songs and rhythms were one of FroeheVs great and
permanent contributions to early childhood education. Some of
his predecessors had encouraged the use of games as an enjoyable
pastime, but Froebel was the first to utilize them for their edu-
cational value,

Froebel recognized the potentiail educational benefits of die
activities OTth which a cbOd's day is so largely occupied. He also
recognized the relation of the sdiool to the home during the early
years and believed that the role erf the school was to supplement
the home. In Froebel’s plan, “doing," “self-acti\ity,“ and "expres-

6 Teaching the Kindergarten OiiM

sion” ^vere fundamental to the kindergarten technique. Children's
self-motivated activity directed toward the development of
worthy social and moral values became the dominant idea of the
kindergarten.

Recognizing that man is a social animal who lives by co-
operating with his fellows, Froebel conceived of education as
a social process. Hence, he asserted Uiat co-operation, courtesy,
and helpfulness should he prominent features of the education
of yoimg children. This emphasis on the social atmosphere of
learning has become a marked characteristic of the kindergarten.
Today ^ve emphasize co-operative and sharing behavior by help-
ing children learn to take turns, to work with common toys, and
to share possessions as well as experiences with others.

The Montesseri Schools

In more recent years, the iofiuence of Dr. ^f^ria Montessoii
{1870-1952) has abo been felt in the evolution of the kinder-
garten. Mme. Montessori, tlie first woman to receive a medical
degree from the University of Rome, became interested in under-
privileged and mentally deficient chiJdreo while an assistant in
a psychiatric clinic. In 1907, after several years of work with
defective ^Idren, she >vas given the opportunity of opening a
sdjool for children of working mothers ia connection >vith a
housing-improvement project. Unlike the children with whom
she had worked preriously, these children were of normal intelli-
gence. Mme. Monfessori’s school was highly successful, but her
later attempts to apply her principles of education to older
children failed. However, her influence at the preschool and
elementary leveb, disseminated through her many books, articles,
and lectures in several countries, \vas great

One of the most important contributions of this educator
was her insistence on the adaptation of school work to the indi-
vidual child. Good teachers have always been aware of the
differences among thildren^ but Mme. Montessori gave them

Philosophic Backgrounds of the I&idergartcn 7

great emphasis and convinced many teachers of the cardinal
importance of these differences ia early childhood education.

No less significant a contribution was hime. Montessori’s
insistence that both the chil d and the teacher be free, neither
dominating the other. In the Kloatessori school, the burden of
control was on the diildren, in accordance with her belief that
there is no freedom without independence. The teachers role
was that of a guide and an observer. She helped and encouraged
children when necessary, but otherwise she left them alone. Mme.
Montessori designed materials for Instruction such that, in many
instances, children were able to find and correct their own mis-
takes and thus become iocreasingly independent of the teacher.

Emphasis on the training of the senses was another character-
istic of the Montessori method; indeed, it was perhaps the distin-
guishing mark of her educational principles. The development
of the senses during the early years of childhood, hime. Montes-
sQti believed, was of prime importance to the development of
intehlgence. She did not claim that sense training as it was
provided In her schools directly increased the intelligence of the
chdd, but she did believe that it helped him to develop finer
discriminations which in turn enabled him to have a greater
variety of experiences than he would have had otherwise. Sense
training was also useful, she felt, as an introduction to the formal
school subjects of reading, writing, and arithmetic.

Much of the teaching cnalerial in the Montessori schools did
not lend itself to group endeavor. However, practical experience
was provided— for example, by giving the children a share ia the
housekeeping responsibilities~to help them develop independ-
ence and learn to work with others toward mutually satisfying
goals. Mme. Montessori saw the value of having children partici-
pate in the necessary activities of the school. She realized as well
that the school through its influence could help to improve the
home care of children. Both of fliese ideas are in harmony with
the best educational thought of today. In the mtsdem school,
children lake on many r es po nsi bilities for running the a&irs of

8 Teaching the Kinder^uten Quid

the classroom, and parent edocation is an imjwrtant part of most
early cHldhood education programs. Mme. Montessori was far
in advance of her day in visualizing the school as a social agency
and as a means of improving the community.

Unlike her predecessor Froebel, hfroe. Montessorj failed to
appreciate the necessity of play in the education of the child.
Xfany of the materials used for sense training in the Afontessori
schools were designed for manipulation and handling by the
child, but they were by no means play equipment. Little attention
was given in these schools to the emotions of the child. What
games there were apparently were included only as a concession
to the immaturity of the child; little or no instructional use was
made of them. Children were not given the opportunity to engage
in dramatic play, to sing, to look at pictures, or to play with
paints or clay. Vet children enjoy all these activities and can
learn a great deal from them. Mme. Montessori failed completely
to appredate their signi£cance.

Since her death in 1952, Mme. Afontessori's influence has
declined somewhat in the United States. She did, however, blaze
the trail of modem educational practices in Europe. Her work
In Italy was suppressed by the Fascist regime; she left no organ-
ized following among Italian teachers. She was the symbol of
modem education in Europe for close to fifty years, but, ironi-
cally, her influence has been felt roost in the schools of Switzer-
land, Holland, England, and, after World War II, in India (to
which she fled from Italy), rather than in her native country.

John Dewey and Democratic Society

John Dewey (1859-1952), perhaps the most brilliant educa-
tional philosopher of our time, was a contemporary of Mme.
Montessori. He has become the symbol of modem education in
the United States as she has in Europe. The whole field of
education has felt the influence of Dewey, and the kindergarten
of today is based to a great extent on his principles.

Philosophic Badi^tmnds of the Kindergarten 0

In jSgG, De^vcy esbblisittd an elementary school at the
University of Chicago, where he was then teaching. This school
svas intended to be a place wbCTe theories and ideas could be
demonstrated and tested. Althou^ the children ranged in age
from four to twelve or fourteen, they were all taught by kinder-
gaiten-primaiy teachers using modified procedures of the less
formalized kindergartens of the day. There was no rigid division
into grade levels.

Dewey’s own account of the work of his experimental srhool
shows that efforts were made to put into effect some principles
which Froebel had set forth decades earlier. Dewey, like Froebel,
believed that education should be tooted in the actirities of the
child, and that these actirities should be organized and directed
toward effective social living.

According to Dewey, man is a perpetual learner in the sense
that he is continually being confronted with new situations. Each
new situation requires him to change his prexious ways of think-
ing or behaving. He must constantly ie\-ise, reconstruct, reorgan-
ize, and tlUs remaking of experience constitutes educatiotL Edu-
cation, according to this philosophy, begins at birth and proceeds
throughout life. Education is not preparation for life but, rather,
3 process of living.

The (diUd, according to the Dewey philosophy, lives and acts
in the present; he sets up aims and readjusts his experiences as
be goes along. This continuous enriching of experience by re-
adjusting to the complexities of the environment is at the heart
of the educational process. True education proceeds through
stimulation of the child’s powers by the social situations of which
be is a part Thus the capabilities of the child are both expressed
and developed as he comes into contact mth others.

Left to himself, the droid uses his developing ability only
for his mvn selfish ends. But the continuance of society demands
that individuals consider the good of the whole. To accomplish
this end, the school is organized for co-operative action, Dewey
regarded the school not merely as a place where children go to

10 Teaching the Kinderg a r ten Child

accumulate infonnation or to receive care, but as an institution
essential to the continuance of democratic society. In My Peda-
gogical Creed, he asserted that the school is an absolute neces-
sity— to society no less than to the child.

The school should furnish a social environment in which the
ongoing activities of the adult world are carried on in a modified
form which can be understood by children. In this embryonic
form of social life, the child should learn through direct, meaning-
ful experience. No modem educator has been more insistent than
Dewey on the role of direct, specific experience in learning.

In the latter part of the nineteenth century, the Froebelian
doctrine of self-activity— that is, activity engendered by the child 5
own interest— was beg innin g to have some ioBaeoce. This, to-
gether with the new emphasis on child development, challenged
the traditional pedagogical philosophy of the day, which con-
tended that learning which was pleasant and interesting to chil-
dren would not prepare them to face (he harsh realities of adult
life. Dewey attempted to clarify the isssue by demonstrating that
all real effort arises from deep interest in a task, and that this
interest cannot be '‘created* artificially. To Dewey, artificial moti-
vation by teachers and all the learning resulting from it were
wrong.

Dewey believed that learning must grow out of the normal
activities of the child, that it must be based on what is of genuine
interest to him. From Dewey’s doctrine concerning interest, a
new appreciation for motimtion developed and, accompanying
it, certain changes in the elementary-sdiool curriculum. In
Dewey’s conception, education involves “not merely learning, hut
play, construction, use of tools, contact with nature, expression,
and activity; and the school should be a place where children are
working rather than L'stenia^ Jeanung life by living life, and
becoming acquainted •with social institutions and industrial proc-
ess by studying them." ^

‘EJwood P. Cubbeily, A Brief i/btoiy of Eduection, Boston, HouglifoD
MiiBui, 192*, p. 78*'

Philosophic BacL-grouads of the Endergarten II

Thus Dewey clarified the relationship of knowledge and
productive activit)'. Schools incorporating De\vey's ideas were
started by the "radicals," as progressive educators were called.
They set out “fearlessly to develop methods by which children
learned through their own actual experiences, and, as time svent
on, mote and more attention v?as given to experiences which
children seek out and enjoy and less and less to experiences set
upon because they are supposed to be proper and valuable for
children. The child’s own purposes became the pivot of kinder-
garten acdvilies. The philosophy of experience was thus carried
over into practice." *

Other great changes in kindergarten education can be traced
to the influence of Dewey’s “project method." 'The project method
emphasized the child’s right to participate in planning for himself
and stressed the importance of children’s helping and learning
from one another. *rhe socialized kindeigarten of today is based
to a great extent on Dewe/s prininples.

The Philosophy of Today's Kindergarten

For the most part, the curriculum of the kindergarten evolved
without heoefit of the research we now have on the young child
and his development Much of the progress in the educational
program for young children was accomplished in the school
itself by teachers who were sensitive to the needs of the young.
Althou^ wise teasers coatinoe to evolve useful techniqnes in
their own kindergartens, thk phase of education is now well
grounded in scientific research and is no longer dependent upon
philosophical reflections concerning the isature of young children.

As a result of advances in sdentiSc knowledge, educators
today realize that action rather than abstract thinking or reflection
is the young diild’s predominant behavior trait Activity serves
the requirements of the c^uUs developing nervous and muscular
» Ilso Forest, Eof^ Yeara at School, New York, McGraw-HiD. p. 114.

12 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

system; learning In the yoiu>g ciiild appears to be as much a
bodily function ns a mental process.

The >'oung child needs to explore and learn with all his
senses— he needs to touch, to finger soft and hard Utlngs; he needs
to Icam the sound of Uungs, their smell, and how they react
when pushed, pulled, hit, or dropped. The keynote of behavior
in early cldldhood is motor activity rather than passive silting
still and listening. Tlic child learns through experiencing. And
the weii-planncd fcfndergarfcn program giivs the diiW &n oppor-
tunity to try his h.md at fobs of various kJods-lho opportunity
to learn by doing. Today wc emphaslxe learning on the part of
the child rather than teaching on tl»e part of the adult. The
environment of the kindergarten Is so arranged that it cliallenges
the learner to explore its possibilities, with the helpful guidance
of a teacher sensitive to his needs.

Flay also enters into the cliilrTs way of learning, for play,
we now realize. Is one of Uie most effective means of education.
To the young child, play and work ore s>'no(iymous; ho learns as
much about his world through one as through tbo other.

Some advocate an educational program for cliildren which
emphasizes preparation for adult living with little reference to
present needs. Othen believe that education should develop
around the child’s Immediate interests and needs. Tlie latter
philosophy is based on the assumption tliat a child who lives
fully and richly at each stage of development is getting the best
possible preparation /or the future.

In reality, it is difiicult to separate the past, the present, and
the future in the educational life of the child; the experiences
and accomplishments of each developmental stage are related
to the past and antidpato the future. If we define education as
a process beginning with birtii and ending only at death rather
than as formal schooling, we must recognize that that education
is best which capitalizes to the greatest extent on the nature of
the learner. Good education helps the child utilize his present

Philosophic Dackgnnmds of the Kindergarten 13

erperiences in such a way that he progresses to an ever higher
level of functioning.

The task of the educator is, then, to direct energy rather
tTian to suppress it The ingui5)ti\*eaes$ of the child and his eager-
ness to paitidpate in what is going on around him become the
avenues throu^ which learning takes place. Children are active,
inquiring beings who need the challenge afforded by the activities
of the school. There is perhaps no reason that children could not
successfully be taught aD they need to knosv at home. But many
homes are not equipped for this task, nor are most parents able
to take on this responsibility. So the sodal institution we call
the school has been set up for the purpose of guiding learning
and helping children to grow into the kind of adults needed in
our democratic societj*. And the teacher is the person entrusted
nith the guidance of this grow^

Growth consists of a series o( ex'ents governed by law's as
loeNdiable as those that govern the tbasgcs of the seasons. The
modem de>-elopmeDta] point of view and the Idea that full, rich
living in the present will prepare the individual to live adequately
in the future are based on the principles of growth- Toda/s edu-
cator bases his educational philosophy not on complacency or
blind confidence in the growth process but, rather, on an under-
standing of the process and of how best to co-operate with it
in guiding the child. Such a plulosophy is cemsistent with demo-
cratic ideology, for it asserts that the task of those who teach
the >-oung is not to force children into a predetermined pattern,
but to guide growth; not to indulge them, but to defer to the
L'mitatiom of immaturit}'.

Every society, of course, even a demoexacy, has certain pre-
conceived standards to wludi It hopes Sts children will adhere;
every educational system tries to help youth to develop uito
the kind of people needed and desired by the society. But the
essence of demooatic society is respect for the individual and
the contribution be can make to the group. The essence of
demottatie education, therefore, is to help each child to obtain

11 Teaching the {andeigattra Child

his optimal growth in the light o£ his unique potentialities. The
“pattern* into which children are guided in democratic education
is, then, a pattern determined by the nature of each child.

The good sciiool for young children is democratio-a place
where the child is valued not only as an individual hut also as a
member of a group. It is an environment in which tlie child feels
secure, and in which there is enough adult control to keep the
pattern of living consistent, while at the same time ensuring
adequate freedom (or the expression of creative impulse. Such
an environment sets up a schedule sulGdently firm to provide a
reasonable amount of security in daily activity, yet sulEciently
flexible to allow for desirable changes of activities to meet new
situations and the changing interests of the child. It sets standards
which even j-oung children can undenland and In the setting
of which they partia'pate, but it also allow for modification in
terms of individual and group needs.

The modem kindergarten seeks to preserve the eager, inquir-
ing attitude of the young child. Ilather than creating a situation
In which the teacher Instructs and the children listen, toda/s
kindergarten encourages children to learn all they can from their
own observations and inquiries. The \vise teacher always gives
children ample opportunity to comment and to ask questions
before she does any instructing. She is concerned Nvith helping
children to meet, face, and solve problems at their owm level of
maturity. Even kindergartners are capable, with encouragement,
of formulating a problem and making suggestions for solving it.
Learning this skill helps the child to realize the need for thinking
about the results of an activity as well as to improve his method
of dealing with other problans.

The Influence of the Kindergarten on Education

The influence of the kindergarten has been great, both on
the general curriculum of the elementary school and on the whole
area of early-childhood education. Education through doing re-

Philosophic Backgrounds of the Kindergarten IS

ceived new emphasis from ihe londergailen, and the kindergar*
ten's recogmtion of educatiooal values other than those to be
derived from books has been extended gradually into tlie elc*
mentaiy school. The new appioadb to the education of the j'oung
ako has largely eliminated the harsh disdpline that at one time
was characteristic of many schools.

We have come to recognize the importance of the child's
joy in his work. *111030 interested in the welfare of the >*oung
child feel that education fads if the child does not feel this joy.
It is a by-product of work and play suited to the diild, in which
he finds a deep sense of self-satisfaction and accomplishment
It has long been knoivn that the healthy diild craves activity
which interests him. But only relatively recently has this need
been recognized and utilized in the education of the child. Today
we start with the child’s existing purposes and interests and guide
his developing purposes and interests, thus helping the child to
use his full learning potentialities. Suth an educational program
Js the most promising means for realizing the potentialities of the
child and helping him to control Ids own behavior.

The preschool and primary grades have sho3vn the greatest
progress In the acceptance of constructive educational ideas.
Schools are moving toward the understanding that their goal
is to enable each chUd to live a full, rich life at whatever stage
of growth he has reached, and to continue that gro%vth intel-
lectually, physically, socially, and emotionally at the optimal rate
for him. But it is in the kindergarten that this philosophy has
been most fully realized. Because the kindergarten has not been
concerned with the transmission of subject matter as such, the
child and his needs have become die focal point for its educa-
tional activities.

Problems for Discussion

1 . Hie schools established by Festalozai would appear to us to be
very conservative; yet, for his day, Pestalozzi was considered quite

16 Teaching the Kinder^iten Child

"progrtsssive.” What does this lenn really mean as applied to edu-
cation? NVhat determines whether a scheme of education ts tradi-
tional or progressive?

a. l/)olc at some of tlie portraits of diddren done in the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries. What irnportant clue can you find in
the manner in whidi children are represented which tells you how
children were regarded In these times? (“Blue Boy," by Gains-
borougli, is a good example.)

3. Tlic advent of Christianity dtd not seem to improve the lot of
diQdrcn materially. How can you account for lliis? What factors
related to man's view of man help to explain this?

4. From your own experience in elementary school, or from your
observations, what influence do you conclude that the "kinder-
garten philosophy" has had on other areas of public education?

5. According to the philosophy expressed in this chapter, the teacher
merely "guides" the grD\vth of children. Are not the demands of
our culture so strong that we ought to "mold" children into cor-
rect patterns of behavior? Are not these patterns for the young
largely predetermined? Explain.

Suggested Addlitenat Reoding

History of the Kindergarten Movetnent in the Western Slates, )/aicoll,
and Alaska. Washington, D. C., Association for Oiildhood Educa-
tion International, 1940.

Cole, Luclla, A History of Education. New York, Rinehart & Com-
pany, Inc., 1950.

Cubbctly, Elwood P., A Brief History of Education, Boston, Houghton
MUHin Co., 1923.

Heltibridle, Mary E., "NVhat, No Kindergartens?" N. E. A. Joumed,
January 1957, 224-56.

Knight, Edgar W., Fifty Years of Amerken Education. New Yorlc,
The Ronald Press Company, 1952.

Philosophic Backgrounds of the Kindergarten 17

2. Preschool Education Today

No educational iDstitub'on is created by one person alone. Al-
though Froebel gave it its name and much of its philosophy,
the kindergarten also had origins In the philosophies of the edu-
cators already discussed and many others.

The Kindergarten in the Untied States

Even Froebel predicted that the kindergarten would End
its gjreatest growth in the United States. True to this ptedlcUon,
in no other country has the kindergarteD spirit been so widely
applied to school M’ork, and nmvhere has the original kinder-
garten idea been so expanded and improved. Although this edu-
cational plan for young children is found today in some form
in. nearly all countries of the world, it is in the United States
that the ideas of Froebel have been most enthusiastically accepted
and put into practice.

The first kindergarten in the United States was founded in
1855 in Watertosvn, Wisconsin, by Mrs. Carl Shurz, a former
pupil of FtoeheL Like many of other kindergartens estab-
lished during this decade, it was a Gennan-spealdng school sup-
ported by private funds. During the next decade, some ten more
kindergartens were organized in German communities. The first

18

English-spealdng Idndergarten was founded by Elizabeth Pea-
body in Boston in i860, and through her influence a private
training college for kindergarten teaches was opened in that
city in i 865 . A similar training school was started in New York
in 1874 by Marie Boelte. These training stfliools were also pri-
vately supported institutions.

In 1873, in St Louis, Missouri, the kindergarten was for the
first time incorporated Into a free public-school system. Dr.
William T. Harris was the superfaitendent of schools at the time
and Susan Blow became the first public-school kindergarten
teacher. By the end of the nineteenth century, about three hun-
dred kindergartens and ten training schools for kindergarten
teachers had been established in about thirty states. Xiany of
these were private institutions, hut it was not long before cities
began to adopt the Idndergarten as part of their public-school
systems. Gradually, as public schools began to take on an increas-
ing responsibility for education of tbe child under six, pri-
vat^y supported educational enterprises for the young child
decreased In importance. Thus a ne%v rung svas added at the
bottom of tbe American educational ladder.

Today the word “kindergarten* is *commoiily used to desig-
nate any school for children between four and six years of age." ^
The nursery school, on the other band, is defined as a “day school
whose program and environment are planned to stimulate learn-
ing and development of children too young to go to kindergarten*
and to foster the best emotional, social, physical, and mental
adjustment of such cluldren.* While the kindergarten has been
part of our educational system for more than a hundred years,
the nursery school is the creation of the last twenty-five years;
only three nursery schools were in existence in the United States
in 1520.

> Encyclopedia of Modem Edueatioftr New York, Philosopbical Ubraiy,
3W3. P- 437-

* Vir^I E. Herrick and Margaret L. Cuiot], "The Educational Program:
Early and ifiddle Childhood," Reeieto of Educational Reseoreh, AjaiJ
a 9 S 3 . XXUI, 1x5-19.

Fresdioo] Education Today IS

The Population of the Kindergarten

Although iandergartens have been defined above as schools
for children “behveen foxir and six years of age,” there appears
to be no unifonn method of classifying four-year-olds in the
school population. In some states— Wisconsin, for example— a
child may enroll in kindergarten at the age of four and remain
either for two years or, if he has readied the minimum age for
entrance into first grade after a year of kindergarten, for only one.
Thus a child entering at four years, six months, must attend
kindergarten for two years while a child entering at four years,
eight montiis, may be eligible to enter first grade the following
September, depending upon regulations in his district. Unfortu-
nately, there seem to be no available statistics on the enrollment
of four-year-olds as a group to public or private centers.

According to the Department of Health. Education, and
Welfare, ’legislation over two decades reveals trends toward
lowering the misimusi school attendance ages. Some states pre-
scribe a minim um sdiool estracice age but authorize local boards
of educatioa to establish entrance ages at their discretion.’'*
Thirty-one states, plus the District of Columbia, have provisions
for children to enter ktadergarten before the age of five. In three
states the nunimum age is three; in twenty states it is four; in
one state it is four and o»e-balf; and in seven slates, and the
District of Columbia, it is five.

The Bureau of the Census reports that there were 3,544,000
fivc-yearw5lds in the total population to October 1935.* Of these
children. 42.9 per cent, or 1,521,000, were enrolled in kinder-
garten. The table shows the distribution of ktodergarten attend-
ance among various gnjups of five-year-olds. In addition to these
five-year-olds, the Bureau of the Census reports that there were

»se<atu Of san*rg<,rte« fU ^y. ei, -SVaihington, D. Q Office
^ WucaHon. Department of HeaWi. Educatioii, and June J954.

«Cuf.^ lUpMj, Series P20. No. 66, Wash&irton D C-

Burean of the Census U. S. Department of CoiinerceT^S 1^6 ^

20 Teaching the Ktodetgaitea rv»l it

Fivc-Ycar-OJds in Public and Private Kindergartens:
October 3355 *

TOTiXi

Popu- Ptr

lotion ^u>n5rr eenl

ecaue acnooia

Per

ffum^ etnt

psirare SCHOOLS

Per

Mumbtr cent

ToraL

3,544,000 1,521,000 420

1.273,000 35.0

248,000 7.0

<ou>r:

1

WHu

3,050,000 1,388,000 45.4

1,1(13,000 381

1 225,000 7.4

NonwWt*

483,000 133,000 27.3

110,000 22.5

1 23,000 4.7

axaisE.vcx:

If

2,072,000 1,162,000 56.1

^,000 47 6

176,000 8.5

Doofarm :

9<3.000 S^f.OOa 30A

232.000 24.1

62,000 6.4

Rural fans.

500,000 05,000 12.8

55,000 10-8

10,000 2.0

* Cumfit Population RtpoHt, Serim rS(X K» 60, WublnfrUm 25, D. C,
Bumu of the C«nsat, U. S. Department w Comiserce, April 1050.

107,000 six-year-olds, or 3.0 per cent of the children in the sLx-
year-old age group, in lundergarten at the time of the study.

From the table it can be seen that there are more children
from urban than from niral areas having the advantage of kinder-
garten. Also, a higher percentage of white than of nonwhite
children attend kindergarten. (It should be noted, perhaps, that
levf Southern states provide financial support for educational
services to children under sir.)

Enrollment in kindergarten increased 82 per cent from 2950
to 1955, representing an addition of 700,000 children to llie total
kindergarten population. Tlie Bureau of the Census attributes
about 40 per cent of this gro\vth to an increase in the birth rate;
there were about 280,000 more five- and six-year-old children in
1955 than in 1950. Roughly 60 per cent is attributed to an increase

I^eschool Education Today 21

in the percentage of children who begin school in kindergarten.
The fact that crowded school conditions have necessitated more
stringent rules for admission to first grade and that, therefore,
some children who might otherwise have enrolled in first grade
may have entered kindergarten instead may also help to e.rplain
the increase in kindergarten enroUment in recent years.

Sfote Previsions for Kindergarten Services

In the decade of the 1870 s, there were public-school kinder-
gartens in only three cities in the United States. By 1888, how-
ever, there were public kindergartens in thirty cities, enrolling
15,145 riiildren. By 1930, nearly 750.000 Idndergarten children
\vere part of the public school During the depression, many
school systems, faced with reduced funds, were forced to dis-
continue kindergarten services. Because the kindergarten was the
last of the 'regular** education services to be added to the public
school system, it ^vas in many instances the first to go when
finances became a problem, especially in areas which were receiv-
ing no state support for tdndergartens. By 1934 enrollment had
dropped to 600,000. No big increases were noted until World
War II, when the increase in the number of working mothers,
among other factors, made the need for an expansion of child-care
services apparent From 1942 to 1945, sLrteen states lowered
school-admission age to pnrvide for children under the age of
six, and thirteen states passed permissive legislation so that
nursery schools or kindergartens could be established (four of
them for the durahoti of the war emergency only). In these
years, ten states authorized the use of local funds for nursery
scliools and kindergartens; nine sUtes authorized the use of
slate funds for emergency care of children from two to fourteen
years of age; and thirteeu states authorized acceptance of fed-
eral funds for specific programs of child care.*

* Ecrlf/ Childiiood Edueaiion, Yearbook, Chicago, National Soci-

ety lor the Study of Educatkm, Univeixity of Chicago Press, J947, II, 59.

22 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

Today kindergarten attendance is not compubory in any
state, but ab states except Arkansas have permissive legislation
for the eslabUshment of Idndergartens. Many of the exbting
state laws, however, limit the provision of kindergartens to to%vns
or districts of a certain mimmum population.

Kindergartens in Rural Areas

In rural areas, kindergartens still seem to be the exci^Hon
rather than the rule, as the table on page 21 suggests. Houses in
rural dbtricts are widely scattered, and the need to transport
children long distances to attend a c«itral sdiool has probably
deterred their establisliraent. Further, tliere is the added dif-
ficulty of obtaining financial support for such schools. Many
rural areas are unable to support kindergartens without some
state or federal funds to supplement the resources of the local
community. Some rural areas, where the need is greatest, are
totally unable to proWde local foandal support for adequate
programs of education for four- and five-year-olds. In a few
rural areas, a siz.week kindergarten is provided in the spring
for children who will enter first grade the following September.
In many communities, five-year-olds are placed in the first grade,
where they probably account to some extent for the higher
percentage of failures in Erst grade that rural areas seem to have.

Schools for Handicapped Children *

In addition to providing publicly supported educab'onal fa-
cilities for normal young difldren, since 1952 many states have
made efforts to provide kindergarteos for handicapped children—

* Data on tlie provisions for cducaUon of handicapped children presented
throughout this chapter ue taken from OSce of Education, U. S. De-
partment of Health, Education, aiw] Welfare, Reprint from “A Report on
State School Law; Special Education of Exceptional Children,” School
Life, NcFvemt)ct 1958.

mreschoed Education Today 23

that is, those who cannot be effectively educated in regulai
classrooms. Recognizing the nerf to identify these children
early, most states either specify an early age for admission or
mahe no age requirements. Of the forty-one states that pro-
vide special kindergarten fadlities for the physically handi-
capped, eight specify a minimum age of three years, one speci-
fies four years, four specify fiw years, fifteen specify six years
(or “school age"), and thirteen have established no minimum
age. Six of the thirty-nine states with special facilities for the
mentally handicapped admit children at three years of age,
one specifics four years, seven spedty five years, sixteen specify
six yean (or “school age"), and nine have established no
minimum.

Most stales define “physically handicapped" broadly, to in-
clude aU children whose physical condition is such that they
require special instruction. Among the mentally handicapped,
however, a distinction is usually made behveen children who are
“etlucable“ and those who are “trainable." Although tbb dis-
tinction may be made on the basis of mental age, there is an
increasing tendency to determine the child's educability on the
basis of his response to learning situations and to his social
environment In other words, a child who in terms of mental age
as measured on a test appears to be seriously retarded may be
classed as "edueable” if be gets along xvith bis peers and seems
to be making some headway in the learning situation.

All but tw^) states provide financial assistance for the edu-
cation of these children, some providing for unspecified allot-
ments, to be determined by local schools, and others for costs
©vet and above that necessary for regular pupils. Two stales
pay tile entire cost of special classes, and many states con-
tribute funds for the transportation and other expenses involved
in educating handicapped diildreo in districts other than their
ovvn if no local facilities for their education are available. There
appears to be a trend away from making it mandatory for dis-
tricts to provide for handicapped children. Since 1949, most

24 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

legislation has been pennlssive, leaving the decision up to the
local district.

Teaching Young Children et a Profession

It is only recently that the teaching of young children lias
been considered a profession. For too long a sentimental regard
for young cliildren was considered a more important qualifica-
tion than education. Today forty-one states require certification
of teachers In publicly supported kindergartens and seventeen
require certification for nursery-school teachers as weD. The
policy regarding private schools has generally been for states
to exercise a minimum of control. Usually teachers are not re-
quired to hold state certificates unless the school seeks accredita-
tion hy the state education agency.*

Klost schools now have special requirements for teachers
of handicapped children, and many arc now authorizing special
educational programs and seliolarships for teachers of these chil-
dren. Nearly all states provide supervision at the state level for
special education programs.

The Functlen of the Modern Kindergarten

The modem kindergarten is desfgued essentially to supple-
ment the home; there Is little in it, perhaps, that could not be
supplied In the home if parents were in a position to do so.
But increased urbanization in the past century has brought about
many changes in the structure of the family and in the nature
of family life. Families arc smaller today, and many memben
are apt to be working or otherwise engaged outside the home
during the day. Few children tiave parents or otiier older persons
in the immediate home environment with adequate time to devote

* A Alanudl m> Certlficetlcn Requirtmeiits for School Personnel In the VnHed
Slates, prepared by W. E^iti Aniuiiong and T. M. Stinoet, Warbitigton,
D. C., National Commission on Teacher Educaboa and Professloniil Stand-
ards, National Education Association, pp. 6-io.

Preschool Education Today 23

to their education. The diild living in a city apartment is handi-
capped by lack of space in which to play and by lack of con-
tact with other children. In fact, the city child very often is
as isolated as the rural child. In some homes parents may be in
a position to provide the things young children need in order
to grmv mentally, emotionally, physically, and socially— adequate
food and rest, companionship, play space, and play materials.
But there are many other homes, in all sections of the country,
at every economic and social level, in rural and urban areas
alike, in which parents are unable, because of circumstances,
ignorance, or lack of training, to give children these necessities
for full development. In a democratic sodety sudi as ours, all
children should have an opportunity for the best possible growth.
Organized educational services for young children are an at-
tempt to supply this opportunity, now that family life, generally.
Is no longer able to do so.

The ob]ectives of education for young diildies have been
stated in many ways. According to Cans, Stendler, and Almy,'
the major purpose of education at the kindergarten and primary
level is *to meet the interests and needs of the pupil* Sherer *
believes that the school for young chUdien should be a planned
educative enviionmeut which provides experiences and guidance
for each child in harmony wth his potentialities and needs—
experiences that >vill enable him to partidpate as intelligently as
possible in important human activities, help him to develop
values and patterns of behavior appropriate to the democratic
way of life, and yield him persona] satisfaction in being with
his fellows.

The National Education Association asserts that the func-

* Roma Cans, Celia Steadier, and aiiBie Almy, Teaching Young Cfuldren,
New York, World Book, 1952, p. 85.

» Lorraine Sherer, Their Firrf Jean in School, Los Angeles, M. Miller,
rg39> P- 24.

‘«For Your Information, BuIIetii]. Washington, D. C., National Edocation
Association, July 1952, p. a.

26 Teaching the Kindeigaitra Child

tion of education in the kindergarten is a broad one. Some of
the more important goals are to liclp promote the health and
safety of children, to accustom children to working in groups
as well ns alone, ^vith or without the distraction of others, and
to provide children with broad opportunity for contacts with
other children and with adults. In addition, the kindergarten
should offer a variety of experiences which will help to reveal
the interests and aptitudes of cduldren and to prepare them for
the reading, wiling, and number work tliey will encounter in
first grade.

In the United States, as we have pointed out, the kinder-
garten has played a leading role in developing new theories of
childhood education. During the past fifty years-the period
which saw tlie evolution of progressive theory and practice in
education-lhe kindergarten has grown from a little-understood
institution to one which is scientifically grounded in research.
The modem kindergarten is 'progressive” to the extent that it
applies the findings of modem biological and psychological
science to the education of children so that they can more ef-
fectively develop their potentialities as individuals and as re-
sponsible members of our society.

In spite of tbe educatiooal lead which on the whole the
area of early childhood education enjoys, even in the kinder-
garten some highly formalized procedures still persist which are
difiicult to justily in the light of what we know about the young
child. As Cans, Slendler, and Almy point out, the type of
curriculum commonly called the “3-Rs approach” still prevails
in some primary grades, and in some uistances has reached down
as far as the five-year-old kindergarten. "Counting, some writing,
and reading readiness activities, chieBy in the form of workbook
exercises, have been typical experiences in kindergartens where
this curriculum has been in operation. Under such a setup the
kindergarten is seen as a year of settling down for children, of
adjusting to sitting still and foUenving directions, so that they

Rresdrool Education Today 27

will be better prepared for a. more rigorous attack on the s-R s
during the first grade.** “

There ate those who w<Kild defend this approach to educa-
tion in the kindergarten in terms of what is expected of children
in the Erst grade. There are others, howcN’cr, who feel that the
kindergarten can make a mu<h greater contribution to the ad-
justment of children to the first-grade reading program by help-
ing them to acquire a rich fund of meanings through broad
experiences, to de\’elop the ability to speak easily and fluently
and to think independently, to develop desirable social habits
and ways of working with others, and to develop an actts-e
interest in reading. The Association for Childhood Education
International^* supports this thesis, stating that the aim of the
kindergarten should be to help four- and fiN’e-year-olds to "live
richly" in, the present ratlwr than to prepare them to read in the
first grade.

The Values of Klnderserten Experience

Because education in the United States is administered, con-
trolled, and to some extent supported, locally, there will con-
tinue to be differing philosophies regarding the function of any
particular segment of the srbool. But most people who have
worked with and understand the ps>xhology of very j-oung
children feel that Idodergarten experience has many values for
all children. We no longer consider education to be merely a
matter of “pouring" learning into the child. Rather, it is today
conceived to be a "reconstixiction of experience," to use Desvey’s
terminology. In ottier words, es'ery moment of his life the child
is learning something and adapting what he learns to the solu-
tion of ne\v and increasingly difficult problems. With this phi-
losophy to gmde our thinldn^ we are increasingly recognizing

Casa, Stendlsr. assd Abny, op. eil, p. 8i.

Knotcing When ChSdren Are Readg to Learn, Washington, D. C, Assod-

ation for Ch i l dh oo d EdncatioB btematioiial, 1947, p. 6.

28 Teaching the Kindergarten Qiild

the many values of kindergarten experience. Because there are
no formal requirements of subject matter to be learned, the
kindergarten can give the diild maximum freedom to explore
and to grow. The kindergarten cuts through many fields of
subject matter, vertically as well as horizontally, taking from
each area what will further the growth and development of the
child.**

Although many-perhaps most— of the values of kindergarten
attendance are rather intangible^ attempts have been made to
measure some aspects of growth resulting from early educational
experience. Goodykoontz and others ” report that children who
had had school experiences at an early age were more advanced
in motor coordination, social responsibility, and health habits
and demonstrated greater adaptability to new situations than
children whose school experience began with first grade. The
findings of Van Alstyne and Hatrtvick •* are in substantial agree*
ment with those of Goodykoontz. In a study concerned svith
the behavior of nursery*schooI children, these two experimenters
found that "the nursery school makes for social adaptability,
indepeRdecce, setf*assertiveness, self>reliance, and interest in
environment" They also found, significantly, tljal the nursery
school contributes to emotional adjustment and leadership.
Jersild *• reports that, although evidence is rather meager,
"quantitative findings'* indicate that nursery schoob tend to ac-
complish the rare achievement of promoting the child’s sociabil-
ity and at the same time fostering his individuality and in-
dependence.

** Rcpy D. Willey, Culdence fn Elementary Education, New Yorlr, Haiper,
S95a. P- 64- . .

‘*Bess Coodyiroontz et al, in Early Chiialiaocl Eat/eation, cp. dt., pp.
44-6g.

“ Dorothy Van Alstyne and La Berta liattwlck, “Behavior Patterns of
Children with Nursery School Experience,'* in Raymond Kuhlen and
George Thompson, ed., Ptyeltohgicol Studlei of /turnon Deoel<>pment,
New York, Appleton<lentuiy-Crofts, XS52, pp. 411*15.

Arthur T. Jersdd and Mary File, In Wayne Dennis, ed., Headings In
Child Deteiopment. New Ycrt Rwiiito-Hall, 1951, p. 56S.

Preszhool Educatfon Today 29

The Effect of Kindergarten Experience on I.Q.

A good deal of research hag been directed to the question
of whether or not early school experience has the effect of
raising the intelligence quotient of children. To date, no defini-
tive answer has been reached. Peterson ** reports that he found
an average difference of 3.5 LQ. points between two groups of
children entering the elementary school of the Univenity of
Iowa. The hi^er quotient was adneved by the groxjp which
had had preschool experience- However, by the end of the year
the difference had disappeared. Wellman ” reports even more
strikiDg Endings. She claims that six months of all-day attendance
at the preschool of the University of Jowa raised the I.Q. of
children an average of 10.5 points, and that the I.Q. of children
who attended the same school half-time for a similar period was
raised an average of 4.7 points.

Starkweather and Roberts ** also found evidence that chil-
dren attending nunery school "gain in I.Q. and percentile rank
as measured by Stanford-Binet and MerriU-Paliner retests.* In
contradiction to Peterson’s findings, they found, further, that
the gains were maintained foUowiog withdrawal from the pre-
school, as indicated on retests.

Anderson,’* on tlie other hand, reports contrary findings.
He studied two groups of children, matched as to I.Q., age (five
years), sex, socioeconomic status of parents, and average of
parents’ years of education. One group ^vas sent to nursery school
and the other was not. Retests of the Rvo groups showed that
nursery-school attendance had produced no significant change
in the intelligence quotients of the childxen; the groups were

” Haivey A. Peterson, Stanley S. l^taizoU, and Nancy Bagley, Educational
Fiychology, New YoA, Macnallan, 1948, p. gio.
i» Beth Wellman, quoted in (bid., p. 506.

I* E. Stariweatlier and £. Robota, InteBigence: Its Nature and Nurture,
Thirty-ninth Yearbook, Bloon^gton. M, National Society for the Study
o£ Education, Public Shoots Pub. Co., 1940, D, 315-35.

» D. Anderson, quoted in Peterson, Matzolf, and Ba^ey, op. cU., p. 508.
Also Intelligence: Its Nature and Nurture, op. cit., 11 , 3-10.

SO Teaching the Kindergarten Child

still matched in I.Q. In agreement with these findings are those
of Kawin and Hoefer,** who report a gain of eleven months of
mental age in seven months for each of two groups, one of
which attended nursery school for the seven-month period and
one of which did not attend at alL (The gain, of course, may be
at least partly attributed to the effect of practice, since the same
test was given before and after the experience.)

Goodenough and Maurer** state that none of the analyses
they have been able to make warrant the conclusion that at-
tendance at a full-day nursery sdiool has any measurable effect
On children’s mental development. If reports of improvement
of intelligence after nursery-school attendance are vah'd, they
say, “the source of improvement must reside in more subtle
factors that as yet have eluded our detection.”

Bird** found that the effect of a year of training in a
superior school envirotunent appeared to be negligible. “Chil-
dren from superior homes were found superior to those from
I>aor homes at the time of entrance and this difference was main-
tained.” That is to say, there appeared to be no change in I.Q.
in the group because of the school erperienec. Dull cliildren
svere not made bright as the result of it, and the bright children,
who were ahead at the beginning of tbe school year, kept their
lead.

IVTicther or not preschool attendance has the effect of rais-
ing the intelligence quotient cannot be determined at this time.
It should be noted that future experimenters looking into this
question must pay very close attention to detail and must control
all variables meticulously.

If it is true, as Peterson, Wellman, and others claim, that
nursery-school experience docs effect an improvement in I.Q.
scores, it may be that the improved scores reBcct a greater un-

**E. Kanin and C. Hoefer, A Comparetftv Studi/ of a Nursery School
Versus a Non-Nursery School Croup, ChScaso, Univmlt}’ of Chicago
Press, 1031-

” Intelligence; Jlj Nature and Nurture, op. tit., p. 178
*• Ibid., p. 8^.

IVesriiool Education Today SI

dentandiDg of language rather than a cliange in Intelligence
level. Most tests used to measure I.Q. in these instances are
verbal, and some evidence indicates that children become more
facile with language in a nursery-school situation.

Dawe made a study of the effect of specific training upon
language development and related mental functions of children
in the preschool and kindergarten of the Iowa Soldiers’ Home.**
Her method was to give the experimental group an educational
program stressing some of the factors known to be related to
superior language development, and to compare the perform-
ances of the experimental and the control group on ir\itial and
final measures of language ability and other mental functions.
Ihe language training was "analogous to what goes on in the
home and school life of any child who is not neglected’ and
emphasized understanding of xvords and concepts, looking at
and discussing pictures, listening to poems and stories, and
going on short excursions. The e-sperimenter also attempted to
stimulate curiosity, to help the children think critically and
notice relatioaships, causes, and effects, and to eliminate careless
diinldng and the careless use of language symbols. Dawe found
that children in the experimental group made significantly
greater gains than those in the control group, achieving superior
scores on tests of vocabulary, home-living informatioD, and gen-
eral-science information. The experimental group, Dawe re-
ports, also g^ed significantly in I.Q., while the main change
for the control group svas a loss of z.o I.Q. points. Children in
the experimental group were also "significantly superior" in read-
ing-readiness tests. (The greater language facility developed in
the experimental group probably accounts for the superiority
of these children in I.Q. on intelligence tests having a high
percentage of verbal items. They did not measure above the
control group on a performance te^)

*• Helen Dawe, “Environmental InfliteiMes on Language Growth," in Kuhlen
and Thompson, op. dt., pp. 939-44.

32 Teaching the Kindergarten C3uld

Other Vgfues of Kfndergarten Attendance

In a stud/ to ascertain the value of excursions to Icinder-
garten children as a means of preparing them for reading in the
first grade, Cantor administered “sdentific tests" Ja the pri-
mary year. She concluded that the children definitely profited
from the comprehensive program of kindergarten excursions.

Jersild,'* studying tlie effect of preschool training on vocal
ability, found that early training may enable a diiJd to sing tones
"quite beyond his accustomed range" He suggests, further, tliat
this early training may give the child a lasting advantage over
other children with like original endovvment whose training
begins at a later date.

According to Strang,*’ attending kindergarten “seems to give
children an advantage in reading readiness and in first-grade
reading achievement." English** puts the point more strongly!
*There seems to be no doubt that attendance in a preschool he]2>s
the child off to a good start in the primary grades." He points
out, hosN'ever, that Uie maintenance of this advantage is depend-
ent on the kind of educatiortal program the child is subjected
to In the elementary school.

From the foregoing, it can be seen that there is no consensus
as to the benefits of preschool education for the child's later
achievement, niere appears to be widespread agreement, how-
ever, that the kindergarten docs make some contribution to the
cldld’s general adjustment-and this, after all, is one of the most
important objectives of the Idodergarten. It was Froebel who
first directed attention to the social values inherent in the kinder-
garten grouping, and these values have continued to be stressed.
Tliey are, bowever, rather difficult to measure. Far too often,
studies have emphasized the appraisal of effectiveness in formal

lieadinest for Reading end Related Language Art», Committee of the

NatJon.ll Conference on Research In English, 1950, p. 33.

**Arlfmr T. Jersild, in Dennis, op. cO, p. *34-

*’ Ruth Strang, An Introduction to ChOd Studp, New York, Macmillan, 1951.

P. 369.

**lfonca English, CfiSld Ps^ehohsu, New Yozk, Ilok, tgst, p. 344-

Keschool Education Today 53

school work, to which the contribution of the nursery school
and kindergarten is minor. Much too seldom has the value of
kindergarten been examined in terms of the cluld s general ad-
justment, social relations, personal development, and zest and
enthusiasm for living-the areas emphasized in early childhood
education.

Problems for Discussion

1. A Teeent newspaper “letter to the editoi" stated that because of
the shortage of teachers and classromns, kindergartens should be
eliminated as part of the free publicH^ucation system. Do you
agree that dus would be a good way of meeting the crisis existing
in our schools? Defend your answer.

2. tVhy is there so mudi variation as to aims and objectives in kinder-
garten teaching? Is this a good thing? Discuss.

3. Some say that kindergarten attcndaoce has taogible and meas-
urable vaJues. Others claim that the values are somess'hat dliBcult
to measure. Others assert that the values depend on the h'nd of
experiecce the kindergarten offers rather thtm mereV attend-
ance or noruttendance. With which of these views do you agree?
^Vhy?

4. How do you account for the fact that the area 0! early childhood
education has taken the lead in introducing new educational
practices?

5. Assume that you are the land of kindergarten teacher whose goal
is to send on to first grade dbildren who have "settled down." What
reasons >vould you give for favoring a three-R's approach to kinder-
garten teadung?

6. Assume that you are a teacher who wishes to help thildten to
"live hilly and richly" io the kindergarten. How would your ap-
proadi differ horn fliat of the teacher described abo%-e? How
would your program differ?

7. Whidi of the two positions described above do you favor? Why?
^Vhat points would you stress in trying to convince a parent that
your approach is in Ids dnJd's best interest?

8. How do you account for the confficting results of studies having
to do with the values of mnseiy-school attendance?

34 Teaching the Kindergarten C3uld

9- How would you define “progresstve education" ns applied to the
kindergarten? Is this the usual definition of the fem? Explain.

Suggested Additional Reeding

Davis, Mary Dabney, Seiioois for Ch^ren Under Sir. Bulletin No. 5,
^V’ashington, D. C., U. S. Office of Education, Federal Security
Agency, 1947.

Four* ami Ficc-Year'OIds at School. Washington, D. C., Association
for Cltildhood Education Intemallonat, 1943.

Cans, Foma; Stcndler, Celia; and Almy. MSlie, Teaching Voong Chil‘
dren. Yonkers, N. Y., World Book Company. 195a.

Good Education for Yeung Children. Rev. ed., Flushing. N. Y., State
Council for Early Childhood Education, Dot 98, Queens College,

iwr-

Hammond, S. L., "What Happens to the Five-Yeai-Olds?" Education
Leadership, October 1954. XH, 9-14.

Let's Look at Kindergartens. Washington, D. C., Department of
Xlndergarten-Prim.vy Education, National Education Association.

McClemhan, M., «t al.. A Teachers' Culdc for Teachers of Kinder’
garten. Tulsa, Okla., Public Sdiools Pub. Co., 195$.

For Ycur Information. \V'a3h{ngton, D. C, Research Division, National
Education Aasodatlon, July 1952,

Netcrer. Elizabedi, Forifallo on More and Defter Schools for Children
Under Six. Washington, D. C., Association for Childhood Educa-
tion lotentadonal, 2950.

Portfolio for Teachers tyf Five-Ycar-OId Children. Dcs Moines, Iowa,'
Department of Public Instruction.

Portfolio for fSndergarten Teachers. General Service Bulletin No. a,
Washington. D. C., Association for Childhood Education Inter-
national, 1951.

The Primary School~Stopl Look! EcaJuatel Washington, D. C., Asso-
ciation for Childhood Edocation Interaational, 1952.

What S/iouId Kindergarten Do for the Children? Concord, N. H., State
Board of Education, 1949.

Presdiool Education Today 35

3 . The Child-Deuelopweiit
Point of Vieiu

I met a little Elf mas once,

Down where the lilies blow.

I asked him why he was so snuQ,

And why be did not grow.

He slightly frowned, and with his eye
Ke looked me through and through^

'I’m just as big for me,* mid he,

"As you are big for youP ‘

Since the be^rmings o! formal education for young diildreQ,
theorists have diSeredwat times with some hltteniess— about the
purpose of such education. At one extreme are those who hold
that the purpose of all education, whatever the age of the child,
is preparation for adult living with little or no reference to
present needs. At the other extreme are those who beh'eve that
education should develop about the chnd's immediate needs and
interests, irrespective of future demands or responsibilities.*

There is a third new, one whidi is gaining acceptance among
educators. This position is based on the realixation that children
are people in their own li^t, not just incomplete adults. It

•John K. Bangs, in May HiD Arbuthnot, ed.. Time for Toetry, New York;
Scott, Foresman. 1952, p. *33.

» Eor^ Childhood Education. Fort|r-rixtb Yearbook, Chicago, Natioaal Soca-
efy for the Study of Edacatioii, Univcrsily of Chicago Press, 1947, H, 71.

never loses sigHt of the fact that maturity is the goal toward
wliich the child is advancing, but it recognizes that the child
needs acceptance as a person at each developmental stage. It
tahes account of the fact that the child's needs, desires, and in-
terests are not identical to those of adults— and that these needs,
desires, and interests change ns the drild grows.

This philosophy obviously requires that the adult understand
the growth process In order to Icnow how best to meet the
needs of tlie growing child. Teachers and parents adhering to
(his view have become more permissive, more and more %villing
to accept the fact that children feel and behave like children.
While guiding them into improved behavior, they are always
aware that children are immature and therefore act like Im-
mature beings. We ha\’e chosen to call this philosophy the “child-
development point of view.*

Perhaps we can best understand the modem, developmental
philosophy by taking a closer look at the two extremes mentioned
above. These have been called, respectively, the authoritarian,
or absolutist, philosophy and the laissez-faire philosophy. Al-
though it might be difficult to find either of these philosophies
today In pure form, aspects of authoritariansim and of laissez
faire still linger in many classrooms, as Cesell and llg point out.*

The Authoritarian Point of View

Adherents of an authoritarian philosophy of cbild-rearing
believe that the adults cf any society or cultural group know
what is best for its children, that they alone should determine
what children team. Teachers and parents holding this vie\v at-
tempt to “mold" children into the patterns of behavior and
thought that they feel are “correct.''

Certainly one of the prime functions of education is to hand
on to youth the cultural heritage of the group. But the authori-

* Arooid GeseJl and France* J7g, Infant and Child in the Cukure of Today,
New York. Ilaiper, 1943.

The Child-Development Point of View 37

tarian philosophy goes beyond fliis. It seems to regard children
as little more than habit-fonaing cieatures who can be shaped
to any desired pattern. The most effective teaching method, ac-
cording to this set of belief^ is that which places the greatest
emphasis on repetition. The authoritarian believes that this is
the most effective ^vay of perfecting the habits whidi he has
dedded are the "right" ones for duldren to develop. Children
reared according to this philosophy do much rote learning. They
talce little active part in the learning process and they do little
real thinldog or problem solving. Teachers and parents who are
authoritarian in their outlook prefer timid, docile children, chil-
dren who are, above all else, "obedient"

The authoritarian philosophy, further, lays great stress on
discipline imposed on the diild from without. Because it be-
lieves in absolute standards of right and tvrong, regardless of the
age or developmental level of the child, it punishes deviations.
And yet, as Gesell ♦ points out:

frothing can be more misleading than an absolute, part&ulorly
in die rnanagement of children. Absolutism leads to authoritarian-
ism and this in turn to blindness— a blindness Unvard the de-
velopmental status and the developmental needs of a child.
From an "absolute" standpoint "stealing is always stealing,
but even a crude use of a simple gradient of accpiisUive behavior
will indicate that there is a difference between the “pilfering"
of a seven-year-old and a spedfic "theft* of a ten-year-old.

If we take a closer look at the assumptions of the absolutist
philosophy regarding the way children grow and leam. we see
that it is out of harmony with our pattern of social living and
wth the values we hold to be important. In a democracy such
as ours, the goal of teadiing must be to help children become
capable of tiiinking for themselves and of directing their own
behavior. Om democratic society would not long erist widi
adults who are only "obedieot " Sudi an idea is consistent with
a totalitarian form of government ratiier than with a democracy.
* Arnold G esfitl , The Child from Fite to Tea. New York, Harper, i9^6, p. 30.

38 Teaching the Kiodergarteo CSiild

It Is the approach of dictafors-~whethcT they are leading a na-
tion or a classroom. It is the philosophy of adults who use force
rather than reason In handling children.

This viesvpoint fails to recogidze that education is a sodal
process, dependent upon the intcrecHon of the learner wth
others, and that in this process the learner plays the most im-
portant role. The authoritarian adult seems to liave forgotten
the old adage that you can lead a horse to water but you can't
make him drink.

The toissez-Faire Philosophy

"I-alssez faire” is a term borrowed from the French. Freely
translated, it means 'to leave alone,'’ to let things nork out by
themselves. If wc apply this pliilosophy to education, we place
no constraints on the child. Adherents of this dew believe that,
if Ujc child Is allowed complete freedom, he will eventually
anivc at wholesome maturity. This philosophy assumes that the
child knows what is good for liim and that he therefore,
select from his environment what is best for him to experience
and to Icam.

'Iho Jaisscz-faJrc philosophy is a policy of noninterference;
It makes few demands for Intelligent guidance on the part of
parents or tcacliers. The laissez-faire adult seems satisGed to
sit back and svatch children grow', with the firm conviction tliat
they will naturally and automatically become well-adjusted
people. Sucli parents nod tcadicrs lay much stress on tlie demo-
cratic value of “freedom’’ in the life of tlie du1d. They fail
hmvevcr, to male a distinction betwren ffccdom and I/ceosc.
'There 1$ a significant dilferctiec betwTcn the two terms. Freedom
IKrmits one to follovr his osvn inclinations, but only to tlie
extent that ho does not interfere with the freedom of others.
License, on the other Iwmd, pmnils one to do wlut Ihj pleases
when and where he pleases, reganlless of Uu? effect on others.

'The child of the laissez-faire parent Is usually not wel-

Thc QiiW-Devrlopment Point of 30

coined by others as a visitor because be has never been restrained
from any act, whether or not it is destructive. The parents of
such a child apparently belie\-e that in time he will understand
the reason for acceptable behavior. The parents, meanwhile, do
nothing to help him come to understand it. The laisse2'faire
teacher uses a similar approadt ller classroom Is always in noisy
confusion. Each child is allowed "complete freedom," witli all
the consequences that this entails in group living. The teacher
gives no guidance, believing that her function is to offer help
only when asked. A criticism of this philosophy is suggested by
the story of the child who asks the teacher, "Do we have to do
what we want to do today?" The laissez-faire approach ignores
the fact that clffldren need guidance from adults, and, indeed,
actively seek it

The Child'Development Paint ef View

The developmental point of viesv, in temper and in principle,
lies between the authoritarian and laissez-faire philosophies.
Adults adhering to this view believe that each child is a unique
being, with his own rate of growth and his own personality pat-
tern. Teachers and parents bolding to this philosophy axe, tliere-
fore, suspidous ol “absolutes" where children are concerned.
They do not, however, favor license. Rather, they are sensitive
to the relationship of growth to maturity, taking their point of
departure from the child's nature and needs. They realize that
effective guidance of children "demands an active use of in-
telligence to understand the laws and the mechanisms of the
growth process’*

The "Normal" Child

Through much study of children and their patterns of
gro\vth, we have developed some concepts of the “average" or
» Gesell aad Dg, op. cit., p. 289.

40 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

"nonnar c{^d of each age. We {aiow, for example, that the
“average” infont exits his first tooth at the age of sit months and
that the “nonnar nine-year-old likes group games. Unfortunately,
these “norms” have often been misused in working with chil-
dren. Parents and teachers who adhere to the developmental
point of view regard them only as signposts along the road to
maturity— as guides which help adults to determine the direc-
tion of growth, not as whipping posts at which we beat the
cJiild into being what the averages for Jus age indicate he
ought to be. The wise parent realizes that many diildren cut
tlieir first tooth later than the age of six monlhs-or earlier.
The intelligent teacher understands that not all nine-year-olds
are interested in group games, no matter what the “average” does.
She knows that a child who deviates from the average in this
or any other way is not necessarily abnormal, because the norms
established for any characteristic or growth pattern represent
a “normal range” rather than a precise point. It may, therefore,
be perfectly “normal” for a child to leam to walk at sixteen
months or riveh-e months of age instead of at the average of
fourteen months. LIkewbc, it may be “normal* for a child to
read at the age of five instead of at the generally accepted age
of six and a half.

Principles of Crovrth

The child-development philosophy also takes into considera-
tion the fact that all kinds of growth— ph)-sical, intellectual, sodal,
and emotional— do not occur in siiarply defined stages or
"periods.” Development is by definition always forward to ma-
turity, but Uicre are no abrupt breaks from one developmental
st.xge to tlie next, nather, deselopment is a continuum, a gradual
transition from one developmental pcriotl to another, xvilli con-
siderable overlapping from one growth phase to tiio next Nor
dors dewlopment occur nl the same rale for all diJldren. Seven-
ycar-olds, for example, difirr in many ch.iracteri5Hc5 from fivc-

The Child-Ocvriopment Point of ^’le^v 41

year-olds; yet a given five-year-old may have an intelligence level
equal to that of the "average" seven-year-old. Conversely, a
given seven-year-old may exhibit no more social understanding
than the typical five-year-old. Nor are children— or adults either,
for that matter— equally mature in all areas at a given time.
Research and obserration show that children exhibit every con-
ceivable combination and variation in tiieir gro%vdi patterns.
Some grow faster physically and intellectually; others mature
more rapidly socially and emotionally. The pattern differs svitb
each child.

In addition, grosvth is cumulaUve; what happens at each
stage of development influences what follows. This principle
is obvious as applied to physical development, but it is no less
true that emotional experiences, good and bad, leave a residue
which affeerts the individuars pattern of feeling and behavior in
stages to follow. If the child at four has a severe iUness, his
physical growth pattern toward "five-year-oldness" may be af-
fected. If the blodergarten child experiences nothing but failure
in his initial school experience, he will arrive in the first grade
with an emotional handicap to success in first-grade activities.
And tUs handicap may affect his entire school career.

Clearly then, it is difficult to describe the “average" child
at any age level Each child has his own rate of development and
pattern of gtoNVth. He is the product of his cwn environment and
particular set of experiences. Possibly the only thing common
to all children entering kindergarten is the number of years they
have lived— that is, their chronological age— and even this varies
to a certain extent

Adults who concern themselves with the welfare of children
realize that the many biological, social, and psychological factors
affecting behavior make it unrealistic to place great value on
"average” behavior. Though it is possible, by comparing age
groups, to single out some distinguishing behavioral diaracter-
isdes and developmental trends, the growth patterns of the in-
dividual child, provided that his environment is adequate, may

42 Teaching the Einder^rteo Oiild

be “right*' for him regardless of the norm for his age group.
It cannot he overemphasized that the child is his own norm.

The developmental point of view asserts that a child who
is funcfa'oning at the highest level of which he is capable is de*
veloping satisfactorily. Tbis means “fimetioning* in every area of
growth— physical, social, emotional, and intellectual. A child so
functioning is a successful child, whether or not he is addesing
as much as other memben of his age or grade group. Each
child's performance should be measured only in terms of his own
past accomplishments. It should not be measured by the yardstick
applied to the child of the same age who lives next door or
sits next to him at school. The little \’ersc at the beginning of
this chapter carries this idea- John, who is five years old and
wri^ thirty-five pounds, is quite as big for John as Jim, who
Is also five but weighs fifty pounds, is big for Jim.

Although all kinds of growth do not proceed at the same
nte in all children, or even in the same child, there is an ob>
scrvable sequence of developmental stages, dependent one upon
another, through which all cliildsea pass. The child becomes
ready for further development by living riclily and fully at each
stage.

Children, like all other organisms, have a tendency to grow—
to realize their potcutialiUcs— rather than to regress. In on en-
vironment adequate to his needs, die child is not likely to fall
betow an earlier level of development lie b e co m es socially mew
adept os he grows older; he docs not become less so. He docs not
decrease in size with the j-ears. To nurture the child’s strong
impulse to grow, we need provide no more than adequate guid-
ance and a favorable environment

evidence

According to the developmental point of view, the teacher
has a great deal of responsibility. In order to help the child grow
at the rruzimum rate of whidi he Is cap-nble, tlie leadicr needs

Tl>e ChOd-Devclr^tmcnt Point of View 43

to know and understand the growth process. Neither the laissez-
faire nor the authoritarian philosophy stresses the need for
understanding the growth process. In the former, tlie teacher
sits and waits for development to take placej in the latter, she
attempts to mold the child into the desired pattern. In the child-
development point of view, on the other hand, the teacher neither
passively anticipates nor a^vely tries to force development;
rather, she is ready at all times to help the diild climb to the
next rung on the ladder to maturity. She does not push him
there; she helps and guides the child when he himself is ready
to take die next step.

This philosophy recognizes that hereditary and environ-
mental forces help determine the unique growth pattern of
eadi individual child. It views learning in terms of grosvth and
teaching as an effort to help the child to live fully at each stage
of development while at the same time helping him to leam
those things which the culture wishes to hand on to the rising
generadOD.

The developmental point of view does not advocate unre-
strained freedom as the laissez-faire philosophy does. It recog-
nizes the relation of growth to maturity. Although it asks from
the child at each developmental level the best performance of
which he is capable, it also recognizes that on occasion he may
regress to an earlier level of behavior. Growth is always pro-
gressive, hut occasional regresrioos, unless they become excessive,
in no way indicate a reversal of thk trend.

X-eaming to help oneself is an important aspect of the
kmdergaiten program. Many parents do too many things for
their children and so rob them of opportunities for developing
self-confidence. Kindergarten teachers can do much to help
parents understand that children need to do things for them-
selves, even though at times what they are trying to do may
seem a little beyond their ability, and that they must be per-
mitted to experience the joy of a Job that is well done-hy their
own standards. Many teachers as well as parents need to be

44 Teaching the Kiudergsuten Child

reminded that the diild’s accomplishments must be measured
by his own standards rather than by those of odults. Even young
children are capable of maldng their ONvn beds and experiencing
satisfaction xvith the result; often, however, mothers fail to realize
that lumps and wrinkles are not so important to children as they
are to adults and that the child will find the job difficult and
frustrating if absolute perfection is demanded.

The Environment of leornins

Given the unique nature of each child, if he is to develop
his potentialities fully, he roust be provided with a learning en-
vironment which permits great breadth of experience and gives
innumerable opportunities for exploration. The educational pro-
gram must be appropriate to the developmental level of the
child and adapted to his nature and needs. For the young child
it must not be Inflexible, too highly organized, or too demanding
or constraining.

The developmental point of view recognizes that the child
is constantly changing and responsive rather than fixed in his
behavior patterns. It accepts children as the volatile individuals
they are-beings who swing from ''glad" to "sad” quickly, who
are glad or sad all over. The child responds with Iris whole body;
he does not confine the expression of emotion to a few facial
muscles, as do adults. The duld-development point of view
realizes that young children have a short attentioii and memory
span and that they are incapable of working for remote goals;
it reco^izes that they are concerned largely rvith themselves
and the “here and now.” Only with increasing maturity can they
develop concepts and underslandiogs beyond their immediate
wants and needs.

Despite precautions, duldren continue to be e:q)osed to dis-
ease. and accidents continue to happen; it is impossible to set up
an “ideal" environment for cbildreu. Indeed, it is questionable

The Child-Devdopment Point of View 45

whether we would wish to set np such an environment even if
we could do so, for children need to ejrperience all aspects of
living. But, given reasonably good surroundings and opportuni-
ties to learn, children make their o^vn next needs apparent and
take their own next steps in growth. Teachers and parents must
know how children grow and develop, so that they svill not ex-
pect too much or too little of diildren at any stage of develop-
ment.

The environment of learning shmild facilitate not only the
child’s intellectual growth, but his emotional, social, and physical
growth as well. The school deals with the “whole child," for the
child reacts to his environment as a complete and indivisible
being. It is impossible to understand the child as a physical being
unless we also understand him as a being who thinks and has
feehngs. Conversely, it is futile to consider the tiild as a learning
organism responding to guidance and teaching if be has unmet
physical-growth needs that prevent him from using his intel-
lectual abilities to the ma.ximum. Hie child is sot an organism
that can he dissected into component parts for the purpose of
education.

If the child is to attain the maximum in wholesome growth,
all aspects of his development must be considered. Not only his
need for adequate physical care but certain other basic needs
must be satisfied, includiog the need for acceptance, security,
and affection. Every child needs to feel that he has a place in
the group; be must have satisfactory social relationships; he must
come to know the experience of success in worth-while activity.
Tlie urge to avoid failure is a pmverful one; only after a child
has achieved some measure of success can he view unemotionally
a situation which challenges mastery.

Not only does the child need to experience success, but he
needs to have that success recogi^d by others, for the attention
given to him and to his efforts is a stimulation to further effort
Many emotional and behavioral problems could be avoided if
adults would make vvise use of approval, recognizing as well

48 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

done worV tliat represents the ddkls best effort. Children, like
adults, strive to maintain their prestige. Wlien status is endan-
gered, undesirable behns-ior may result. Sudi a reaction can easily
be prevented by praise /udidbosly bestourd.

Every day every child ought to experience tlio slinmliUon
of real success, appropriately acknowledged hy tlie teaclicr,
*^ 110003 $" need be no more than having rememberct! to water
plants or perform some other small chore at the teacher’s request
Tlds Is not to say tliat children need not learn to experience
failure, because that is an important learning too. But failure
is met easily if one also espcriences success often. There is a
tonic effect about success wliich affects tlie whole personality.
Children respond well to the praise of adults and are humiliated
by punishment. The atmosphere most stinuilating to growth and
learning Is ono of ease and scctirity. A reassuring pat on the
shoulder, a kind word, or a bit of praise by teachers and parents
can go far in helping the child to achieve and proGt from success
and to adjust to occasional failure.

Not all children, however, need the same amount of approval
and attention. There ore children in every group who appear to
wilt unless Uicy receive constant assurances of approval from
the adults in their environment. OUiers, perhaps with greater
Inner resources, seem to need hardly any reassurance. The under-
standing teacher bestou'S approsid to eacli according to his needs,
knowing that individual differences ere as significant in this area
as in areas more readily measurable, such os height, sreight, or
Intellectual ability.

EsTjy chlld-«pcc«a!ly Che young cluTd-needs an atmos-
phere of reasonable security in wliich he knows that he is wanted
and needed, A school svith a homelike almosphcro is more likely
to contribute to a child's feeling of security and belonging tlian
one which Is greatly dUferent from home. The understanding
teacher always notices a child’s new dress or suit, takes tlie
time to give him special greeting after an absence, remembers
to make some mention of a birthday. She lets him know tijat

The Chliil-Dcvdopmcnt Point of View 47

whether we \vould \vish to set up sudi an environfoent even if
we could do so, for children need to experience aH aspects of
Using. But, given reasonably gpod sunoundings and opportuni-
ties to lean), (diildren maie then osvn next needs apparent and
take their own next steps in growth. Teachers and parents must
blow how children grow and develop, so that they tvill not ex-
pect too much or too little of children at any stage of develop-
ment

The ensironmenl of learning should facilitate not only the
child’s intellectual grosvth, but his emotional, social, and physical
growth as svelL The school deals with the “whole child,' for the
child reacts to his ensironmeot as a complete and indivisible
being. It is impossible to understand the child as a physical being
unless we also understand him as a being who thinks and has
feelings. Conversely, it is futile to consider the child as a learning
organism responding to guidance and teaching if he has unmet
physical-growth needs that prevent him from using Hs intel-
lectual abilities to the maximum. The child is not an organism
that can be dissected into component parts for the purpose of
education.

If the child is to attain the marimuTn in wholesome grosvth,
all aspects of his de^-elopment must be considered. Not only his
need for adequate physical care but certain other basic needs
must be satisfied, including the need for acceptance, security,
and ftSection. Every child needs to feel that he has a place in
the group; he must have satisfactory social relationships; he must
come to knosv the experience of success in worth-while activity.
The urge to avoid fitiluie is a powerful one; only after a child
has achieved some measure of success can he view unemotionally
a situation which challenges mastery.

Not only does the duld need to experience success, but he
needs to have that success recognized by others, for the attention
given to him and to his efforts is a stimulation to further effort
Many emotional and behavioral problems could be avoided if
adults would make wise use of ajgjroval, recognizing as well

40 Teaching the Kinde rgarte n Child

done \vDrk tlut represents the child's best effort. Children, like
adults, strive to maintain Ihefr prestige. When status is endan-
gered, undesirable bcharior may result. Such a reaction can easily
be prevented by praise judiciously bestowed.

Every day every diild ought to esperience the stimulation
of real success, appropriately aclcDowlcdged by tlie teacbor.
’‘Success" need be no more than having remembered to water
planb or perform some other small chore at the teacher’s request.
This is not to say that children need not Icam to experience
failure, because that is an important learning too. But failure
is met easily if one also experiences success often. There is a
tonic effect about success wliich affects the whole personality.
Children respond well to the praise of adults and are humllbted
by punishment. The atmosphere most stimulating to giosvth and
learning is one of ease and security. A reassuring pat on the
shoulder, a Idnd svord, or a bit of praise by teachers and parents
can go far in helping the child to achieve and proCt from success
and to adjust to occasional failure.

Not all children, }l0^vcver, need the same amount of approval
and attention. There arc children in every group who appear to
^vilt unless they receive constant assurances of approval from
the adults in their environment Others, perhaps u-ith greater
inner resources, seem to need Iiardly any reassiuance. The under-
standing teacher bestows approval to each according to his needs,
knowing that individual differences arc as signiffcant in this area
as in areas more readily measurable, such as height, weight, or
intellectual ability.

Every child— especially the young child— needs an atmos-
phere of reasonable security in which lie knows that he is wanted
and needed. A school ^vith a homelike atmosphere is more likely
to contribute to a child’s feeling of security end belonging than
one which is greatly different from home. Tlie understanding
teacher always notices a child's new dress or suit, takes the
time to give him special greeting after an absence, remembers
to make some mention of a birthday. She lets Tiim know that

The Child-De v e l o p n i ent Point of View 47

he is a valued member of the group just because he is himself,
whetlier he contributes a great deal or very little. Although a
great many children come to school for the first time eager for
the new experience, many others would prefer to remain in the
famihar refuge of home rather than taVe this new step. These,
perhaps, are the children who need that extra measure of recog-
nition from adults.

In order to give the entering Idndergartner a sense of secu-
rity, parents and teachers diould work together to make the
transition from the small intimate family group to the more
impeisonal one of the school as smooth and pleasant as possible.
Some schools invite prospective Idndergaitners to visit a class
accompanied hy one or both parents. The presence of a familiar
person in this unfamiliar experience may make the child feel
freer to explore and sample what the kindergarten has to offer.
Such a visit may help to cushion the traditioQal step from home
to school.

Once the child becomes a part of the kindergarten group,
his confidence and security are increased by the stability of the
environment in terms of the adults who are teaching him and
the routine of the kindergarten day. A certain amount of routine
upon which he can depend provides the necessary base from
which the child can move into the unexpected and the new. The
establishment of some stable and consistent patterns which the
child can recognize not only provides security but also enables
the child to give full attention to new experiences as he faces
them, without the confusion of not knowing what his responsh
bilities are at the moment.

Problems for Discvtsien

1. In what sense is education a "social process"? Does this deSnition
run counter to some classroom situations you have seen? Ho^v?
a. Pamela is unusually small for a five-yeai-old; she is shorter and
wdghs less than the "oorm^ for her age group. How can you

48 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

explain tte fact that the pediatrician who cares for this child says
that she Is normal?

3. Give examples of the laissez-faire, authoritarian, and develop-
mental points of view from your own sciioo] experience. As a
child in school, did you experience greater permissiveness in the
early grades or in high 5^01^ Is this as it should he?

4. The parents in your PTA group see little need to study growth
sequences because, they say, “Whatever you do, children grow."
How would you convince these parents of their need to know
how children grow?

5. Explain the concept that growth is a continuum vrith no sharp
breaks between developmental periods by describing aspects of
your own development.

6. If there is no eaerage child, isn’t it useless to try to describe chil-
dren of any givoi age group? Defend your answer,

7. Allen is Eve and on the whole rather mature. On occasion, however,
he regresses to a lower level of behavior. M’hen he is ill, for ex-
ample, he sometimes sets more like a three-year-old. His mother
is concerned. ^Vhat would you say to her if she came to you for
ndvico on this problem?

8. Miss Thompson says that she "pbys no favorites* and gives an
equal amount of attention to all children in her kindergarten, Do
you agree or disagree with Miss Thompson’s approach? Why?

9. In what specific ways might a kindergarten teacher ensure that all
children experience success in some form daily?

Suggested Additional Reading

Erikson, Erik H., ChiWliood and Society. New York, W. W. Norton &
Company, Inc., 195®-

Honigmann, J. J., Cullure and FenonaiUy, New York, Harper &
Brothers, 1954.

Hymes, James J-, Jr., A ChSd Decehpment PoM of View. New Yorl^
Prcntiee-Hall. Inc., 1955,

, “The Forgotten Under-Sixes." JV. E. A. Joumaf, January 1950,

XXXIX, n.

McLean. Dorothy, “Child Development: A Generation of Heseardi."
Child Decelopment, 1954, XXV, t, 3-8.

Tlie Child-Devdopment Pcw'nt of View 49

Whiting, J. W. M.. and Child, 1. 1^., ChOd Training and Personality:

A Cross-Cultural Study. New Haven, Yale University Press, 1953.
Wtmer. Helen, and KotinsV)', Ruth, eds., Pcrsonolity in the Mo^'ng.
New York, Harper & Brothers, 1932.

50 Teaching the Kindergarten Quid

4 . The Kindergarten-Age Child

“No hvo childroQ are alike" is a statement tijat no inteUigent
adult would think to question. That there is much overlapping
of characteristics from one age to another no thinking person
would doubt. Yet anyone who has observed children or worked
>vith them to any great extent comes to realize that some charac-
teristics seem to be typical of children at certain ages or at given
developmental periods. Thus one says that ''parallel play"— play-
ing alongside other children rather than u^lh them— is charac-
teristic of three-year-olds, that “associative play" is characteristic
of five-year-olds, and that children below the age of six are
usually not capable of truly co-operative play. Of course, many
three-year-olds exhibit greater maturity in this area than the
“average” five-year-old— and some five-year-olds show greater
maturity in their ability to co-operate than some ten-year-olds.
These variations may be found in any group.

Despite these individual differences, some characteristics are
typical of four- and five-year-old children. The child of this age
is concerned primarily with himself, his family, and his play-
mates. He is an immataie being with little conception of his
cultural heritage; life to him is a Tsere and now" existence.
Although children of this age are usually friendly, considerate,
and sympathetic, they are egocentrirr. that is, the world seems

51

tie motor sldl! of the average di-year-oId, tvho spends a great
de^ of tone climhing trees, crawling over and under everything,
and d„„g stots on the trapeze bar or ssving. Most ‘fives’ have
matured suffieienUy in coordination and responsibOity to dress
a™selves. Some drildren of this age can even button hard-to-
get-at places and tie their own shoes.

Socio! Growth*

The child approaching the age of five is groiving socially
» weU as physically. He lihes to be wid. oa^cML and!

1 ««•- kb play or possessions,

hee^totoless grabbing, pushing, and^aihcLatfonr

SeX mstonees has beenne srf-
fi^^rrid ^ Wggaa. pordon. He

adul^Qundh-^ dependable individual, eager to please the
tht lu “I' permissions

“■ ke differ,

iTs o/a taTal^ '“'“■V-Ttold is some-

sij-y^<H o?th^ ° “ komebody. The

often but more nniriJ^ a • brash. He quarrels less

iag others. ^ ** apparently unconcerned with pleas-

to seSe' “ r T’’' "I®"”- --i b often able

He Plays

groups of two or three Indoor nl» Pa^^larly in small

log than outdoor play, probablv '"th more quarrel-

play area indoon. ^ because of the limitations of the

play and pl^^g interested In doU

tating their parents. own home life or imi-

guls often choose bov« distinction in play:

—

“• Chapter ii and Chapter 13.

« Teaching a.

of four and five are not so rough in their play as they will be
at six, an age at which children often resort to kicking, fighting,
and name calling if they do not gel their \«y. This lack of rough*
ness may be related to their general phj-sical development. The
six-year-old prefers running games, roller skating, and rope Jump-
ing in his play and he is highly skilled at these acthitics. Four-
and five-)’ear-olds, on the other hand, arc Just learning Uiese
skilb and probably lack the muscular coordination necessary for
six-year-old roughness.

The five-ycar-old is more at home with himself and less at
odds svilh his cn\'ironment than he was at four. He is more aware
of the reactions of those about him and more sensitive to praise
than he was earlier. lie tries hard to live up to the expectations
of the adults in liis environment. The five-year-old may appear
to be shy in his approach to adults, but ho usually builds up a
good relationship with them. This age Is one of tl>e most satisfy-
ing as far as the cliild's relations wlUi adults ore concerned,
because he usually endeavors to please and wants above all to be
A good helper. By five the child's Iwrfzons have widened so that
he is looking for more challeoge than his home oITords Itim. He
wants to go to school, but. because he has matured only to the
point of "five-year-oldness." he Iratrics to return to the security
of his home once school actiWties ore over.

Emotionally, the kindergarten-age child often appears to be
calmer in dangerous situations than an older cHld, partly, at
least, Ijccausc he is as yet too immature and sclf-eentered to
realize all the Implications of the danger in which he finds him-
self. Unlike the six-year-old. who lends to go otil of hounds under
slight stress, and the four-year-otd, who is often bossy and dog-
matic to ctn-cT up his m»T} Josecudly, tiie fivc-)*ear-eld seems to
bo emotionally well adjusted. Although tills is not a fearful age,
by the end of the fifth year the cMd may exliihit some amdetJes
t)-pfcnl of sfx-ycar-olds. He may fear being dqirived of his mother
(tiie child at five is a great mothers child), he may fear noises
which he cannot identify or loealire, or he may fear bodily Injury.

Tl* Klndcrgartm-Ago Child 55

In the second half of the fifth year, we may also detect some
beginnings of the temper ontbursts and screaming that often
characterize the behavior of the “sixes* in situations in which
they feel inadequate.

Handedness

By the time the duld milcts londeigarten, he has usually
established a preference for using one hand more than the other,
aldiough some immature duldien may still be using both hands
interchangeably. There is some difference of opinion concerning
the development o! left-handedness. Some writers believe
handedness has a physiological basis in the dominance of one
hemisphere of the brain over the other. This theory suggests that
left-handedness is inherited. Other writers, however, claim that
it is the result of diance or faulty training.

WTiatever the genesis of left-handedness, the fact remains
that we live in a right-handed world. Although our culture is
quite tolerant of so minor a deviation, there are some real and
practical handicaps in being left-handed. Many things are dif-
ficult to demonstrate to the left-handed chlld-for example, tying
a bow or mana^g such musical instruments as the violin. And
only in the last few years have such tools as scissors been manu-
factured specifically for left-handed people. Even the pouring
lips of most Settles favor the ri^t-faanded person. The simple act
of dining presents problems to the left-handed person; he must
constantly be on guard lest his elbow collide with that of his
right-handed neighbor. Eating implements are awkward for the
southpaw because they ate designed for right-handers. It is inter-
esting to note that the French word gfiuche, which literally means
“left," has come to mean “awkward” in English.

Although most children eventually become right-handed,
there are about jfloajooa left-handed people in this country,* the

* Etltel lUlciiett and Donald Hughes. Teaching Language Artt in the EIe~
TnerUarv School, Kew Yoilc, JtcBiald. X95B, p. 271.

58 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

majority of them male. The wise teacher will encourage children
to use their right hands, but some children will resist any attempt
to change their already established preference for their left. To
determine whether a child is “genuinely" left-handed, Hildreth
suggests observing his use of fds hands in cutting, pasting, sew-
ing, or coloring. If he shoAvs dominant use of his left hand in
75 per cent or more of all observations, he should be classified as
left-handed.*

There appears to be some basis for the theory that forcing
a child to change his hand preference may cause some disturb-
ances in his development. For example, he may exhibit a tend-
ency to stutter. Of course, stuttering which apparently begins
with the forced change in handedness may be caused by factors
in the situation other than the change itself— for example, by the
teachers methods or the child’s tensions and confusion. Further,
stuttering does not occur in all Instances of such change. The
fact remains, however, that there may be a possibility of causing
some disturbance in the chUd if he is forced to change an already
established hand preference. If the child appears to resist the use
of his right hand, therefore^ it may be best to allow him to use
the band be prefers.

The I.Q, and the M.A.

The physical-growth curve appears to slow down at age five,
but mental growth contiimes on its ascent unabated. The diild
in kindergarten is learning at an incredible rate. In the growing
child, increasing age means increasing capacity to learn, to think,
and to solve problems of graduated difficulty. At any stage of
development the child is capable of performance of which he
was not capable at a previous stage.

The child’s ability to accomplish more and more difficult
intellectual feats as he grows older is expressed in the concept

♦ Gertrade IliUrrCh, Iteajinetr for SeJtool Beginner*, Yonkett, World Booh,
>950. pp. Qa, 63.

The Kindergarten-Age Chfld 57

of mental age (M.A-). An M.A. of s indicates tliat the child’s
score on a standard intelligence tes^ such as the Stanford-Binet,
equals that of the “average" five-year-old. If, on the otl^ handi,
a five-year-old earns an M.A. of 7 on such a test, %ve know that
he is perfonning ^vell beyond the norm for his age.

To determine the rate of a dald's mental development, we
use the concept of the intelligence quotient (I.Q.). This is a
comparison of MA- and dironological age (C~A-), as expressed
in the formula

M.A.^

iQ = cX-X’“'

The child described above has an h!A, of 7 and a CA. of 5.
His LQ., therefore, is 700/5, or 140. For 46 per cent of the
population at large, I.Q. scores range between 90 and jog, too
being the average (see table). It is apparent, therefore, diat a

Interpretation of InteUxgence Quotierds
on the Revised Stanford-Binet *

1.0.

Verbal drscnpKpn

Per cent
in each ffrovp

140 ftTid above

Very superior

1

120-139

Superior

n

110-119

average

18

90-109

Average

46

SO«9

Low average

15

70-79

Borderline

6

below 70

hlentalljr defective

3

100

' Adapted from M. A. MerriU, "Hic Siguficance of the I-Q.'s oq the Ke-
rised Stanford-Binet Seales,” Journal Sdueaiiaaal PeyeWogy, 1938,
XXIX, Ml-Sl. Dats deiiTed from 290( subjects aged to 18.

58 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

dUld whose I.Q. is 140 based on a standardized test of intelli-
gence is an unusually able child. As a rule, the greater the mental
ability of the child, the faster the rate at which he Icams; thus
die child with an I.Q. of 140 Jeams at a much faster rate than
the child with an I.Q. of 90.

It is important for teachers to know both the MA. and the
I.Q. scores of children, hut the MA. may be more signiBcant for
teachers of kindcr^rtners. Since the MA. desCTibes the child's
current level of development rather than his rate of progress,
it is a better index of his readiness to learn than the I.Q.

We may know, for example, that Eve-year-old John has an
I.Q. of 80. This tells us that he is not developing mentally as
rapidly as most diildren of his age. But it does not give us any
infoimation about his possible interests, or the age group with
which lie would be most at home. However, if we know that
he has an M.A of 4, wo can predict that he will have greater
success In a group of average four-year-olds than svith children
of his own chronological ago and that possibly his interests will
be more nearly like those of younger children than like those of
Ids chronological peers.

learning ond Mafuralton

Learning is a developmental process closely allied to growth,
or maturation. Both factors are at work during the years of child-
hood, but they are interdependent; one is often, in fact, virtually
indistinguishable from the other. It is dllScuIt to determine
whether a j’oimg child has come to a certain competence or skill
tlirough maturation, learning, or a combination of both. When we
speak of the young child's ^camJng'' to walk or to talk, for exam-
ple, it is almost impossible to separate the two factors. Belli pby
a part, but wlierc one leaves off ond the other begins cannot be
determined.

Although these two aspects of development cannot be dJ-
TOfccd, we can sec a distinction ^vhen wo say that Mary has

The Klndcrgartes>-Age Child 59

cal changes, in size or function, which talce place in children.
Learning refers to modiBcations in the child's behavior as the
result of experience, use, or practice.

During the very early years, growth plays the predominant
role in the child’s development Throu^ maturation, he becomes
capable of the coordinations involved in such activities as creep-
ing and walking. The infant spends much time in practicing
these activities and there is little that can be done to hurry his
development. Research has found that intensive practice does
not usually enable children to slop a stage in the developmental
sequence. As sho^vn in studies by Gesell and Thompson,* added
maturity also brings an increased ability to profit from practice.
Therefore, as the child matures, he uses what he has learned
over and over again, in different svays and to solve increasingly
complex problems.

The Thinking of Ktndergartners

Because the kindergarten duTd is immature in years, his
thinking has certain limitations. He still thinks largely in terms
of the immediate and the concrete; be rarely shows much interest
in things not immediately present to his senses, and he is not yet
capable of forming generalizations of a high order. His thinking,
as we have pointed out, is primarily egocentric. A cat to a kinder-
gartner is “my cat"; if be is very immature, he may find it difficult
to understand that “mother” is a different person to each
He defines things in terms of their use to him; chairs are things
to sit on, stoves are things to cook on, and pot covers are things
that make a noise when banged together.

Despite these limitations, by the age of Eve most children

* Arnold C««ll and II. Thompson, *Xeamns and Ciwlh In Identical Twins:
An Eiperimeirtal Stndy by 6ie Xldhod o! Co-Twin Control,” Cwtic Psy-
chology ilonograph, 1329, « - — -

arc capable of at least elementary problem solving. Because
most of bis thinking is In immediate, concrete terms, the Cve-
year-old Is not yet ready for the reading that he will be
expected to do in the succeeding school year, for success in read-
ing depends not only on a good deal of maturity and experience
hut also on the ability to handle lughly abstract symbols. The
symbol free, for example, must stand for the green and grosving
thing the child knows. The symbol house stands for the place
he knows as home. Most 6ve-year-old children are not yet ready
to handle such abstractions. Moreover, at this age the child has
not yet developed the eye-hand coordinab'on that he will need
in order to read and write.

At five most cliildrcn are becoming more successful at dis-
tinguishing fact from fancy, although many “Eves” still indulge
in “tall tales." At this age the duld is more critical of his own
performance than he \ns at four and therefore does not brag
about ids own creations as much as he did earlier.

The Iflterestt Kindergartners

Although there may bo some dilfeTrnces among socioeco-
nomic groups In this respect, most four->'car-olds— if they have
the opporlunfl)’-and fi\t-ycar-oIds show an fctercst in going to
school and in doing the things that school children do. hfort
young children arc eager to do what older chlldrcn-ond adults-
are doing.

Most kindergarten-age children like to look at Ixnks; some
C\'e-ycar-old$ pretend to read, and tliose who are more mature
get great enjoyment out of copying letters and numljori from
printed mafer{.ilj. Some “fives" already are asking at breakfast
l!me,"\\liat docs it say on the Imx of cereal?" Or tlicy may notice
tlial "some of the letten cm the sign are like the ones in my
name."

Ussially tlic fis-c-j-car-oM Rindergartner knovi-s his o^vn name
and sometimes his address. He may know his fathers name but

“the KindeTjjanm-Age Cfukl 01

often not tiiat of his moflier— die is knovm only as *Mama.” A
good many children of this age can distinguish their right -from
their left hands, but they may have difficulty in maJdng the
distinction in others.

hlany five-year-olds know the names of the colors. Girls are
often ahead of boys in thU respect, perhaps because our culture
places more importance on color where girls are concerned. In
many other respects as well, girls are more mature in interests
and abilities than boys of the same age.

The kindergarten child seems to derive pleasure from the
simple act of counting. The four-year-old may have greater dif-
ficulty than the five-year-old in attardiing a specific number to a
collection of objects, espe«illy if the number is over ten. Five-
year-olds often show rather mature understandings in this area,
depending on thdr background of experience and general ability
leveL

Understanding Time Sequences*

The 'fives' have a better grasp of time sequences than die
"fours,” but they still have little understanding of epochs. Many
are the kindergarten teachers who have been asked if they kne\v
Moses Of George Washington! It is difficult to interpret the past
to children of this age-the teacher and Moses are readily placed
within the same historical period. Anything earlier than yesterday
or later than tomorrow is difficult for die four- or five-year-old
to understand.

However, children of this age are be^oing to show an
interest in measures of time such as clocks and calendars. Interest
in the first may refiect an a^vareoess that clocks can indicate
when going-lo-bed lime or going-to-school time has arrived.
Interest in the calendar arises with the da^vmng realization that
the time distance to a birthday or Christmas is measurable. Most
kindergartens are equipped with some form of calendar to help
• Time teqaences are also discussed In Chapter 15.

62 Tcadiing the Kindergarten Child

children leam the names of daj^ oi the iveeh and the months
and other facts about time. Althou^ no formal attempt is made
to teach children of this age how to tell time by the clock, they
can be taugJjt to recognize the time for jiucc, for rest, and for
going home by the position of the clock hands. A fe%v may even
leam to tell time accurately.

The Development of Language*

Language has become one of the four- or five-year-old’s most
important tools for thinking and communicating. Imagine if you
can a group of kindergarten duldren pursuing the activities of
the day in silencel Vocal cqjression is as characteristic of chil-
tlren’s play as is brcatliing. At five the child still enjoys experi-
menting w‘th sounds, but he is less interested in this pursuit than
he was at the age of four, when he delighted in repeating non-
sense syllables and rhymes, such as ‘‘mommy-pomniy-wommy"
and •'daddy-paddy-waddy.’" Experimenting with sounds appeals
to the cliild's sense of humor and may actually benefit him
by Increasing his ability to distinguish among as well as to
reproduce various sound combinations. The five-year-old asks
many questions but, unlike the four-year-old, he seeks informa-
tion. At the earlier age he often asked questions to hear himself
tall^ the four-year-old is his own best audience.

The child’s language ability develops at an amazing rate.
According to one estimate, the average chfld at four has a speak-
ing vocabulary of about 1500 words; at age five, it has grotvn to
2000. By age six the child is acquainted with about 2500 words.*

The preschool child uses nouns more often than any other
port of speech, but he also uses verbs, adjectives, and pronouns.
The five-year-old is capable of composing sentences of nine or

* Language is also discussed la Chapter 9.

* See, Mer eUa, A(. K. South, "AJeamrernent of the Size of General English
Vocabulary Through the Elementary Grades and High School,” Genetic
Ftycholagy Ifonogroph, 1941, XXIV.

The Cindergarten-Age Child 63

ten words; usually tlie larger flic djild’s vocabulary> the longer
the sentences he uses.

Along with the child’s growing ability to use language goes
an increasing ability to comprehend and to malce wrbal explana-
tions. Howe\er, because the English language is full of words
which sound alike hut ha>’e different meanings, it is necessary
to help the young child clarify word meanings. Idioms or careless
use of language on the part of adults may also confuse the child.
One child whose father said that deer “fly" through the woods
asked where the deer's wings were— an understandable mistake
for a five-year-old!

The wry young child is satisfied merely to know and repeat
the names of things. This practice seems to give him some control
over his en\'ironment But with increased maturity comes an
increased interest in causal relationslups. The child's confusion in
causal relationships is more often due to lack of information than
to his inability to use language correctly or to think through a
problem. To the young child, laddng knowledge of wind current*
and pressure areas, it seems logical indeed to reason that ‘the
trees make the srind blow” The diild's language in this instance
refiects his ignorance. On a simpler level, hosvever, the five-year-
old can handle language inwlving causal relationships. At this
age quarreling involves more words th-in it did at an earlier age.
Many five-year-olds can support their side of an argument—

fait John because be pushed over my blocks.^ Hiey can make
decisions involving rather mature understandings—*! think we
ought to put the toys in the shelter because it might rain," or,
"Susan shouldn't paint without putting on an apron because paint
is hard to wash out if it gets on her dress,"

The Child os on Individual

Although diildren are suffioently alike to be taught success-
fully in groups, they differ gready from one another. Good teadi-
ing takes account of the abiMties which childTen have in common

64 Teaching the Kindeigatien Child

as well as of their spedal capadties. It provides an educational
environment which gives the individual child opportunities to
develop his abilities to a high degree while enabling him to grow
in group responsiveness and the ability to work for group goals.
Children are able to learn at an early age that no tw-o people
are alike in capadties or interests and that each child can make
an acceptable contribution. Each child is far too complet to be
described by such all-inclusive \w>rds as "good" or "bad," "bright"
or "dull." Each child has potentialities as well as limitab’ons; good
education discovers and unfolds the potentialities, while at the
same time minimizing the limitations.

Problems for Diseutsion

]. ^Vhy are young children egocentric? 1$ egocentrism an undesirable
diaracteristic? Is it only found io young children?

а. What is meant by the "nimnal range" in describing any char'
acterlstic? How does the concept diSer from the "average"?

3. Assume that you are a kindergarten teacher in a micldle'class
area. The parents are concerned because their children are having
a great many stomach upsets and colds. What advice would you
give these parents to help them with this problem?

4. Bob, who b four, spends some time coloring but often seems
frustrated because he cannot "stay in Uie lines." Susan b the same
age but, unbke Bob, appears to enjOy the activity and spends
much more time at it than Bob does. ^Vhat developmental factors
might explain the difference between Bob’s and Susan’s attitudes
toward coloring? Do the expectations of the culture play any role
here?

5. Mrs. James' five-year-old son seems to prefer to use his left hand
for such activities as coloring and cutting. She b concerned that
the child will grow up to be left-handed. ^Vhat help and assurance
could you give hfrs. James regarding handedness? tVhaC sug-
gestions would you give regarding efforts to change the child's
handedness?

б. Does the infant “grmv" to walk or “leam” to walk? Does he "learn"
to talk or "mature" to talk? ^Vhat b the difficulty involved in db-

The Kindergarten-Age Child 6S

cussing the relative coDtribtition of maturation and learning to the
development of any specific ability?

7. The parents of five-year-old Jack are extremely disturbed because
he has lied to them on occasion. They say that he cannot seem
to undentand the meaning of the word “honesty." \Vhat factors
regarding the thinking of five-^ear-olds and their use of words
would you cal] to the attention of Jade's parents?

8. Why is talking called a "tool" for thinking? Is talking absolutely
necessary to thinlung?

g. What maturity factors cause the quarreling of five-year-olds to
differ from that of hvo- or three-year-olds?

Suggested Additional Reeding

About Children, How They Learn, Feel, and Crow. Reprint Bulletin
from issues of ChUdkood Education. Washington, D. C., Assodatioo
for Childhood Education International.

Bayley, Nancy* Studies in the Development of Young Children.
Berkeley, Univenity of California Press, 1940.

Davis, AUlson, and Havighurst, Robert Fother of the Man: Hoto
Your Child Celt flit Pertonality. Boston, Houghton MiSin Co.,
1947 -

Horn Children Decclop. Adventures in Education, University School
Series No. 3, Ohio State University, Columbus, 1946.

Wolf, T. H., The Effect of Praise and Compeiilion in the Persisting
Eehocior of Kindergarten Children. Institute of Child Welfare
Monograph Series No. 15, Minneapolis, University of Miimesota
Press, 1938.

Wolff, W., The Personality of the Preschool Child; The Chiles Seartdi
for Self. New York, Cruae & Stralloo, Inc., 1946.

66 Teaching the Siirdergaitea Child

The Kindergarten Teacher

One of tlie most challenging tasks In the field of education is the
selecting and training of teachers. All our research in child devel-
opment, good buildings and equipment, and curriculum coostruc-
h'oa avail us nothing if we are unable to enlist for the profession
of teaching the energy and enthusiasm of people who are superior
In their ability to work with children.

The Imperianee of the Teacher's PersonolSty

It is only in comparatively recent years that we have come
to understand fully the importance of the personality of the
teacher in the life of the child. Although we now emphasize
learning on the part of the child rather than teaching by the
teacher, we recognize that the teacher’s personality has a far-
reaching infiuencc on the children whom she is guiding. It has
been said, in fact, that "the emotional svell-being of young people
can be expressed largely in terms of their relationship with
adults" * -and teachers, of course, are the adults the child kno%vs
best, next to his parents. The chOd needs a challenging environ-
ment; he also needs an environment In which he feels secure and

^Fritz Hexll Mid WlUiam Walienbeis, Stnial Ifiiglene tn Teaching, New
York, IlArcourt, Brace, 1951, p. 335.

67

wanted. Therefore, he needs an alert and intelligent teacher who
is sensitive to his emotional no less than to his intellectual and
physical needs.

It is no longer enough that the teacher possess sound knowl-
edge of subject matter. Today's educator must be an intelligent,
well-integrated, far-seeing person, capable of maintaining a class-
room atmosphere that is confidence-inspiring, fadlilaling rather
than frustrating. This is true imticularly of the kindergarten
teacher, whose job is not to impart tnoNvlcdge hut to help the
child to make the transition from home to school, and thence
to the larger community, smoothly and eagerly. For the child’s
development the emotional climate of the kindergarten is of
supreme importance.

This concern for the emotional climate of the classroom
marks a forward step in our thinking about the "whole child."
Teachers and children live together for many hours a day; if
they are to live happOy together, there must be an atmosphere
of approval, in which the child can experience belorrgiogoess
and security. The child must feel that he has a safe base from
which to face life. Good teaching involves teamwork between
children and teachers, and this is possible only when a friendly,
congenial relationship exists bertveen them. We know that adults
work better and learn more in an atmosphere of approval than
in one of indifference or hostility. If this is true of adults, how
much more true it is of duldrenl

The personality of the teacher is important also because it
is she who sets the stage for learning. Teachers are not “merely
the machines by which education experiences are made available
to children. They are part of the active environment of the
child.” * In this sense, as R-escott points out, they are personnel
workers; therefore, intelh'gence, sympathetic insight into the
needs and behavior of ddldien, and sVdll in getting along with

* Daniel Prescott. Emotion and the Educative Process, Washington, D. C.,
American Council on Education, 1938, p> %8i.

68 Teacisissg tiie Kindes^rtsn Child

them may be more important attributes than eniditiou, ability
to maintain discipline, or Icnowledge of teaching techniques.*
These last-named characteristics are also important, of
course, but what is perhaps more important is how children
feel about school and teachers. A study by Eiserer * indicates that
when children have good feelings about school, when they view
their teachers as friendly and helpful, their intellectual, emo-
tional, and social development is greatly facilitated.

Children come to school with ideas about school and teach-
ers already formulated. Although some are negative or ambiv-
alent, according to Eiserer, ^n a great majority of American
communities the positive influences . . . outweigh the negative.
It is a defensible view that children in the present, to a greater
degree than in any previous, generation perceive the school
favorably." They look upon teachers as persons who want to
help them,

Although some adults feel that children have taken over
the schools, (his study shows that from the viewpoint of the
child, at least, the teachers are in charge. "Teachers coll the plays,
dispense re^vards and punishments, define the limits of action."
When this is done “with humane consideration of the child,"
Eiserer points cut, “it Is accepted, espedalJy in the early years,
without conscious resentment or conflict"

Studies such as these are important because they demon-
strate that the attitudes teadiers show toward diildren are
powerful influences in the lives of children. The development of
clilldren in sdiool is largely dependent on the relationship be-
tween teacher and children— especially, perhaps, at the kinder-
garten le\-el. The teacher of any age group has a certain amount
of “prestige %'alue"j she las lived longer, she is an adult who
reflects adult wisdom, and she is usually physically larger than
her pupils. Kindergarten children on the whole are sUll largely

p. jes-

* pBol E. Eiserer, “Childrea'f Perceptions of Scliool snd Teachers,” Eduai-
ttonel Lettdcnhlp, April igS 4 . pp. 40^13.

The Kindergarten Teacher 69

adult-oriented. They need much assistance from adults to meet
personal needs. They constantly seek adult help in working
out their problems. They are less concerned with what other
children think about them than with the opinion of adults. In
the kindergarten, “the child’s relations with the teacher take pre-
cedence over his relations to other children." *

The teacher, then, has the power and the responsibility to
create a good emotional dimate in the classroom. This means
a friendly, informal atmosphere characterized by mutual accept-
ance and respect of teadier and children. Such good emodonal
climates are perhaps more diaracteristlc of preschool groups than
of any other level. Ryan found that "in work with younger chil-
dren generally there was an encouraging trend to^vard conditions
and practices that make for good mental health." •

Like the term “the whole cMd." "mental hedth" appears
frequently in educational literature. And our concepts concern-
isg both terms tend to be rather vague. Most educators seem
to agree, howe>'et, that mental health involves, fint and fore-
most, self-acceptance, the ability to appraise one’s assets and
liabilities, to exploit the former and learn to h've ^vitb the latter.
An individual who is in good mental health is one vrhose
goals are reasonable in terms of his capabilities and who wTOks
consistently toward those goals. Mental health also ins-olves the
ability to establish and maintain wholesome relationships with
others— an ability which depends to a great extent on self-ac-
ceptance.

A significant aspect of mental health the teacher’s point
of view is the extent to which it is acquired, not inherited.’ The
school therefore has the responsibility of providing an environ-
ment conducive to the development of good mental health Such

‘ Henry J. Otto, Social Education in Elementary Seltocltj New Tork, Rine-
hart, 1956. p. 71.

•W. CarW Ryan, “The School and Mental Health," Understanding the
Chad, October 1954, p. 112,

’ Lee J. Cronbach, Edacotiopal Ftyehalagy, Harcourt, Brace, lS54r p. Sai.

70 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

an environment b one which does not make' unreasonable de-
mands on the child, in which he can work out satisfactory rela-
tionships with other children and with adults, in wlilch he b
free to make mistakes without fear of undue censure or db-
approval, and in which he is helped to recognize and realize
hb potentialities most effectively.

Charseteristics oF a Goad Teachar

There b probably no single configuration of personal at-
tributes that describes all effective teachers. Nfany authorities,
however, have attempted to Ibt some of the personality traits
that seem to result in effective relationships with children. The
factors which Symonds * believes to be important are;

1. A liking for teaching.

2. Personal security, respect for self, dignity, and courage.

3. Ability to identify self %vilh children.

4 . Emotional stability: the abOity to accept the less de-
sirable characterbtics of children, such as aggression and
carelessness, as well as the desirable, such as industry,
efficiency, and brightness.

5. Freedom from acaiely: the ability to permit a certain
amount of disorder in the classroom ivithout fear of
censure from superiors.

6. Unselfishness.

Burnham* Ibts the following as characterbtics of "great
teachers":

1. Devotion to an absorbing task.

2. Wide and varied interests.

• Terdval M. Symonds, "Pmonalrtjr of ihe Teadier," JoumcJ of Education
Rueordi, May l 9 ^ 7 , XL, 652-71.

* wniiafii Bumliam, quoted fa Ihith Strang, T/ie Hole of ilte Teacher in
Fertonnel Work, New Yoilt, Teachera CoUege, Columbia University, 1946,
p. ao.

Tbe Kindergarten Teacher 71

3. Ability to focus on the present situation, to mobilize one’s
complete energy and personality for the task at hand
wthout dissipating energy by fear of failure or censure
and regret for what has been done.

4. Abilit>' to face reality objecliwly.

5. Ability to inspire confidence.

6. Emotional maturity, including tbc ability to help children
become intreasingjy independent without being depend*
ent on children as an “emotional outlet."

7. An orderly association of ideas.

These listings have not put the traits in order of importance
and both have been made by adults interested in teachers or
in mental health. In a study by Paul Witty,** elementary and
bigh-school children listed the following characteristics of “the
teacher who has helped me most" In order of importaoee:

1. Willingness to co*opetate, demooatic attitudes.

2. Consideration for people, Vdndliness.

3. Patience.

4. Wide and varied interests.

5. Good personal appearance, pleasing manner.

6 . Fairness, impartiality.

7. A sense of humor.

8. Good disposition, consistenc)' in behawor.

9. Interest in problems of childreii.

10. Flexibility— ability to adapt to situations.

11. Use of recognition and praise.

12. Proficiency in teaching subject matter.

To the present writer, a sense of humor seems to be one
of the most essential characteristics of a good teacher. Children
need to lave warm and hearty people around them~i>eople who
can laugh and have fun. Some teachers seem to be afraid of

**Panl Witty, "An Analyas of llie Fersmality Traits of fee EffectiY«
Teacher," Joumel of EdttcatUm Remudx, May 1947, XL, 662.67.

72 Teaching the Eindergaiten Child

themseJves with children, afraid that children wiU somehow get
out of hand if the teacher relaxes with them. A well-developed
sense of humor protects the teachers o%vn mental health as
well as that of the diildren. It is sometunes the most effective
tool in solving disciplinary problems. It is a safeguard against
tensions and anxieties. Often being able to "laugh ofT a difficult
situation solves an entire problem. The svise teacher soon recog-
nizes that a false sense of dignity can stand in the way of
successful discipline. Better teacher-pupil relationsliips e.xist in
an atmosphere in which teachers tahe time to have fun with
children and to laugh svith them. Friction subsides when teachers
cultivate the play spirit and develop tlie ability to share a joke
with children. A sense of hunwr, it has been said, is "obviously
the most essential characteristic of slallful handlers of disdpline
problems." “

The teacher of young children also needs to possess an
extra measure of physical and emotional stamina. The first is
needed because there is much physical work involved in teach*
ing kindergarten children, as the aching back and thigh muscles
of many a young teacher testify. Emotional stamina is of the
utmost importance because, as w know from much research,
children learn better with a teacher who is calm in voice and
manner and who brings to her classroom a well-balanced per-
sonality. The personality of the teacher, In fact, can affect the
atmosphere of the classroom even more than her methods of
teaching. Emotional states, unfortunately, tend to be contagious,
and children are highly susceptible to suggestion; ’* the nervous
and erratic teacher Is likely to End that she is teaching children
who have caught her symptoms. The teacher who is disappointed
and spiritless is likely to have listless and dispirited diildren. The
teacher who is maladjust«l can cause more problems tlxan any

“ CcoTSe V. Sheviakov and Frit* Brdl. /or Toda\ft ChiMrtn end

youOi, ^vWungton, D. C.. National Eduratienal Asjocjation, tgsO, p. 45.
’'John A. BrcFiuon. '’Problrm Teadien,'* Educatlonei Admlnijlratlon and
Supetvhietn, March ir} 43 . TOCIX, 177^3.

The Ktndergarten Teacher 73

agency can cure. Sheviakov and Bedl *’ report that about 6o per
cent dJ school disdplinaiy cases are related to a combination <j£
factors in the personal history of the child and “some deficiency
in the psychological structure of the group” in about 30 per
cent of the cases, problem b^avior is “produced entirely by
group psychological inadequacies of school lifo"j only about in
per cent of all cases are "simple cases of indiWdual disturbances."
They conclude, "When something is wrong with the group In
which an individual Uves. even the most normal individual is
likely to produce confused action leading into problem behavior."
And die teachers personality to a large extent determines the
psychological climate of the group. The teacher’s method of re-
sponding to her pupils sets a pattern which the children tend to
follow in their relations with one another.

The personality of the teacher is also reflected in her con-
ception of what constitutes behaWor problems and in her han-
dling of them. Her definition of “good" behavior is a result of
her own personality and value system. Teacliers are on the
whole members of the middle class, “the most rigid part of our
culture,” and schools in our society tend to foster middle-class
values. 'These values include "honesty, brotherly love, submissive-
ness to recognized authority, cleanliness, tidiness, puritan moral-
ity concerning se.s, and the proper things to do at all times.”
They also specify "respectable" forms of recreation, stress “the
major value of putting off present satisfactions for possible future
gains, which when lived up to means a minimum amount of
satisfaction other than one of saving," and emphasize "not ex-
pressing natural feelings of aggression, never losing one’s temper
or getting angry. In general, there is a prohibition against the
expression of feelings of any kind." In the value system of the
lower class, on the other band, much more freedom regarding

*• Sheviakov and Bedl, op. eft., p. 44.

wCtoicing Up in an Aniuw Washington, D. C., Association for
Supervision and Cumculmn Devdopoiest, National Education Associa-
tion, las*. P- 63.

74 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

ses behavior is accepted, and deanlioess and tidiness are not
so highly valued; in short, the eatitB pattern is less structured
and rigid than in the middle class.

The teacher herself, like many another “normar adult may
find this value system diffictdt and frustrating to live by; she her*
self may occasionally become angry or in some other uuy trans-
gress the rigid code of middle-class mores. Unable to accept some
of these behaviors in herself, she becomes unable to accept them
from duldren. But when the teacher (or parent) is able to
understand and to accept her own behavior, she then can accept
that of the children in her charge, whether or not it conforms to
her own behavioral standards. Teachers should recognize that
the beha\’ior of children, as well as that of teachers, is determined
by their background and experience and does not grow out of
“natural sinfulness." Because our culture is predominantly middle
class, U Is probably desirable to inculcate tl)e middle^lass >’alues
in chQdrcn; but clilldren who meet these values for the first
time in the classroom should not be penalized for behavior that
conlllcts with the standards to whidi the teacher subscribes.

Tlie teachers who are most successful with young children
arc (hose who give them much loving aUect/on, who share fun
witli them, and who give (hem a chance to relieve their emo-
tional tensions. In short, they are warmhearted beings who
admit their human fallibility and who are able to accept actions
and expressions tliat ore childlike without condemning Uic cliild.

To the casual observer, the small child's desire to manipulate,
to c-xamino things to see what makes them go or how they ore
made, may appear to be destructiveness. But it is /ust this desire
to handle, to manipulate, to experiment with tilings, that has
developed in man a Iinnd capable of an infinite variety of skills.
The child needs, therefore, surroundings Uiat will give scope
to Ills curiosity if he is to progress healthfully mentally and
physically.

Teachers of young clilldrcn nro such Important people be-
cause of the lasting influence of early learnings. It is important

Hie Kindergarten TcocIkt 75

to the child as well as to society that first learnings be sound
and good. It goes without saying that the successful teacher of
the young is aware of the latest scientific knowledge about chil-
dren. She knows how cliildren and what they need to
help that growth; she kno^vs that children need love— \vann,
glowing, and secure. She takes delight in small beginnings; she
is patient with the fumbling efforts of immaturity. She realizes
that every growing child needs to feel his O'vn worth and de-
veloping power, and that each individual needs recognition.
She has confidence in his ability to succeed, because she sets
tasks that she knows to be within his capacity.

As a rule, the greater the child's security in his relationships
with his teacher, the harder he tries, and the sooner he succeeds
in achieving successful adjustment From a study of teacher-
pupil relationships, Bush concludes that the mutual liking of
child and teacher is one of the most important factors in bringing
about an effective learning relabooship. He found, in fact, that
teachers who knew most about the children they were teaching
had a better teacher-pupil rdatioosl^p than those who were con-
cerned primarily with subject matter.

The child is the reason for the school; be is the one for
whom wo strive to provide an environment in which education-
ally profitable experiences esn take place. A knowledge of the
child— how he grows, what his interests and purposes are, bow
he learns— provides the foundation upon which we can build
an effective educational program. In the last analysis, the child
himself determines what he will learn. As John Anderson points
out,’* "If a child is pven a problem which can be solved and if
he is motivated to respond, correct responses ^vill appear, in
time, regardless of whether or not a teacher is present or instruc-
tion given. All that is essential is that right and wrong responses

Robert Nelson Bust, The Teacher-Pupd Relatloiuhtp, New YorV^ PrenHce-
Ilali, 1954, pp- 188.69.

Chtldhood Educirtion, Forf^-eixth Yearbook, Chicago, National
Society lor the Study of EducaUon, TJniverrity of Qiicago Press, 1947,

76 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

have different outcomes. If guidance and demonstration of good
procedures are added, the child will make greater progress.
Literally, then, a teacher does not teach; she guides a process
inherent in the child which would go on even if she were not
present but which should go on more effectively if she is present.
She motivates the child in a process of self-educatfon.*

P/oblems for Discussion

1. Miss Jones says she never dispbys any impatience with children
because this would stamp her ns “emotionally immature.” Do you
agree?

2. Five-year-old Jim has very superior intelligence and has demon-
strated that be is capable of performance beyond the average of
the kindergarten class. For erample, he has painted some extremely
skillful pictures. But sometimes he merely daubs paint. The teacljcr
always praises him, regardless of the effort be has expended, be-
cause she feels that if she doesn’t he vvill become discouraged and
daub all the time. Do you agree? How would you handle }itn if
you were his teacher?

3. Cite an Instance from your own childhood experience in which a
teacher or other adult smoothed over a difficulty by laughing it
off. Give an example of a disciplinary problem which would be
better laughed off than handled seriously.

4. Would it be possible for a teacber to use her presb'ge in a group
to the detriment of children? Explain and give examples.

5. Ryan found that conditions for the promotion of good mental health
tverc found more often la presdiool groups than at upper educa-
tional levels. How do you account for this?

6. Miss Frank is al^vays in a hurry and has a ratlier loud, high-pitclied
voice. There seems to be a great deal of whining and crying as
well as shouting among the diddren In her kindergarten. Can you
suggest any explanation for this behavior?

7. Mr. Lyman, the prindpal of your school, has asked you to take a
child in your kindergarten to task because, says Mr. Lyman, “The
child was using bad language on the playground." You know
something about the background of thb child— (hat lie xmiies faim

The Kindergarten Teacher 77

an undeTpri^•ileged home and that his parents have had only a
very nidinentary education. How would you respond to Mr. Ly-
man’s request? What would you say to the cMd?

8. 0£ what value to a teacher is a %isit to the home of a child?

Suggested Additional Reading

Aden, Robert C., “Teachers as Inhibitors and Re-directon." Fcabody
Journal of Education, l^S, XXXIU, 17-30.

Biber, Barbara, and Lewis, Claudia, “What Young Children Expect
from Their Teachers." Genetic PsychologV ifonogfophs, 1948, XL,
3-S7-

Bennan, Leo, “The Kfental Health of the Educator." JfenfaJ Hygiene,
1954, XXWin, 422-29.

Frank, Lawrence, and Frank, Ktaiy H.. Teachers’ Attitudes Affect
Children's Relationships." Eduaaion, 1954, LXXV, 6-12.
Harrington, Cordon M., “Smiling as a Measure of Teadier Effective-
ness." Journal ef Edueational Research, 1955, ?XV11I, 715-17.
Henry, Jules, “Docility, or Giving Teaser What She Wants." Journal
cf Social Issues, 1955, XI, », 33-4».
lindgiea, Henry Clay, Afeniol Health in Edueethn. New York, Henry
Holt & Co-, Inc., 1954.

Levin, Harry, “The Infiuence of Classioom Control on Eindergarten
Children’s Fantasy Aggression." Elementary School Journal, 1955,
LV, 462-66.

Minkler, Rachel, “A Thought on Classroom Climate." Bulletin of the
Institute of ChUd Studies, Toronto, 1955, XVII, 1, 15-16.
Odenwald, Robert P., “Mental Health and the SdiOolroom." Educa-
tion, 1954, LXXV, 18-28.

Rogers. Dorothy, 3Ientol Hygiene in EZemenfory Education. Boston,
Houghton Mifflin Co., 1957.

Ryans, David G., “The Investigalioa of Teacher Characteristics."

Educoffonfll Record, 1953, XXXIV, 371-96.

Strang, Ruth, “Characteristics of a Classroom Whidi Promotes Mental
Health." Nercous Child, 1954. X, 363-67.

Whitley, Harold E., “Mental Health Problems in the dassioom,"
C/ru^sfending the Child, 1954, XXIII, 98-103.

78 Teaching the Eindergaiten Child

6 . The Kindergarten Dag

The tindergarten child !s learning at an incredible rate, prob-
ably at a greater rate than at any other time in bis school career.
Teachers and parents expect diJldrea to be eager to learn, and
anyone who has observed children knows that they are. But
there are liinltations imposed by immaturity, and whatever learn-
ing Is expected of the young child needs to be adapted to his
limited capacities. Perhaps any curriculum which is developed
for four- and five-year-olds represents some compromise be-
tween theory and practice.

Kindergartens should not be “clock bound,” but tliere should
be some framework around which daily activities are built
Having some sort of schedule frees both the child and the teacher
so that attention may be given to other problems. A schedule
can, therefore, help the child to become a more self-directing
individual; it must never be an end in itself. Knowing that “after
we have washed our hands, we have lundi” enables children
to direct themselves and frees them of the need for constant
guidance by adults. A schedule helps also to make the kinder-
garten a dependable place in which to live. If schedules do not
serve these purposes, the teacher should re-evaluate their use.

There are many ftetors lavolved in building the daily pro-
gmti tA ’<3ti3«sgas^s?i., ami, %. io ■jatJfccWry iniposVAlie in^gn

a schedule suited to all diildren and to all schools. There is no
“best v,-ay" of teaching kindergarten. Only the teacher herse^,
knowing her children and their backgrounds, and aware of the
facilities at her disposal, can plan a program of activities which
is psj’chologically sound, interesting, and challenging. Adapta-
tions must also be made in the ligl^ of die general routine and
administrative policies of the sebooL Even climatic conditions
must be considered; in areas where the weather is mild, many
activities can be carried on outdoors which in other areas must
be part of the indoor program. (Whatever the climate, however,
four- and five-)’ear-old rduldren should be outdoors as much as
possible.) On pages 91-93 we have suggested three “basic*
schedules which the beginning teacher can adapt to her own
situation, and on pages 93-96 some special considerations in
planning the first day of school.

Th* "Work-Play Pariod"

Although v-ariations in programs and s^edules are inevi-
table and probably highly desirable, certain experiences should
be part of the program of ervery kindergarten. One of these Is
the “%voTk-play period," sometimes called the "self-chosen-activ-
ity time." The place of this period in the daily schedule— at the
beginning of the day or at some other time— may depend upon
whether the children come directly into the kindergarten on
arrival or rem^ outside on the playground until the bell rings.
An allowance of one clock hour for this period, whenes’er it is
scheduled, prorides ample time for an initial discussion period
to plan actirities and for the necessary cleanup after the close
of the period, as well as for the actirities themselves.

It is probably impossible to distinguish sharply between the
"work" and the "play’ of young children. However, some kinder-
garten teadiers dhade this worV-play period into two time
blocks and designate the materials and equipment which may
be used at each time. In such a program, the first part of the

80 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

period may be devoted to ‘‘vrorlc,’* at which time children use
such materials and equipment as easels and paints, blocbs,
crayons, and other crealiw media. During the "play" period,
children may use wheel toys or doll-house equipment. Those
teachers who divide tlie period into two distinct sections con-
tend that this practice encourages children to become interested
in a greater variety of activities. For a child who seems to sliow
interest only in wheel toys, for example having the use of these
toys restricted to some extent may help him to broaden bis
interests. Other teachers feel that during this period children
should be free to choose the activities which interest them and
to use any and all equipment or materials in the kindergarten.
Most children, they contend, provide themselves with an "ade.
quate diet" of activities, requiring only a little encouragement
from the teacher to try something new.

During this work-play period, the child may color, paint at
the easel, finger paint, work large jig-saw puzzles, work with
tools at the workbench, build things of his o^vn choosing or help
In a group project, play in the doll comer, play with large-
muscle equipment, such as the indoor jungle gym, build with
blocks, or play with smaller toys such as trains or cars. Some
children may prefer to spend at least part of the hour in rela-
tively passive or solitary activities; they may look at books,
"read" to other children, experiment with musical Instruments,
or play records. Often some members of the group wll use this
time for dramatic play.

Planning the Work

Planning the work for the day is an important part of tlie
total work-play-period experience. At first the kindergartner lacks
the maturity and experience for detailed planning. But even at
this point he is capable of expressing what he wishes to do.
He may \oice a desire to paint or to build without specifying
what he intends to paint or build. As be becomes more mature.

The Kindergarten Day SI

and as he gains more experience in group living, he grows in
his ability to plan; by the middle of the year the kindergarten
child is able to express his plans more completely and specifically.
Whereas in the beginning he marely indicated the area in which
he ^vished to \vork, be may now say, “I’m going to build a
boat." At a later period he becomes capable of planning in
groups of three or four children, widi guidance by the teacher
when necessary. As the child has more experience wth a
variety of materials and develops greater language facility, his
plans become more detailed. He becomes increasingly able to
confine his plans to a particular project and to work on that
project for a relatively long period of time.

Some children may not be sufficiently mature, even by the
middle of the year, to participate in planning to any great ex-
tent, and these children need special help from the teacher.
However, some children who do not participate vocally may show
by what they accomplish that they have listened and under-
stood.

It should he pointed out that not all planning for the work-
play period is done at the beginning of the hour. Children’s in-
terests change rapidly; after the child has painted at the easel,
as he planned, he may need guidance into another activity. The
teacher may also need to guide certain children away from too
frequent repetition of one activity. A suggestion such as, "Let’s
go over and see what Bill is making with the blocks," may di-
rect the interest of a child who spends an unusual amount of
time at the easel toward the more co-operative enterprise of
block play.

Some children may need help in finishing what they have
started. The teacher may say to a child who is drawing, “That’s
a nice tree; do you plan to draw a house too?” and thereby help
him to finis h what he has begun. The teacher moves about the
room, observing the children as they work, and helps them
plan as she talks svith them.

Even at this early age, children can make substantial prog-

82 Teaching the Kindergaiteo Child

ress toward self-direction, and the work-play period can aid in
developing this ability. As Hildreth points out: *

A work and pUy period first diing in the morning during which
children learn to select an activity and ^vork ot it, a1oi:e or with
a small group, without demanding the teacher’s constant atten-
tion or interfering with other rdiildren who are busy with their
own projects, lays the foundation for self-responsibility during
later school years.

"Centers of Interest"

The tendency in today’s tdndergarten is away from the long-
term, rather highly structured “unit* and toward “centers of in-
terest," or group projects initiated by the children themselves,
with a minimum of direction by the teacher. These centers may
occupy the time and interest of the whole group or of only
a few children; they may hold the children's attenbon for so
more than a day or for a longer time. There may be one or
more centers existing simultaneously, depending on the maturity
of the children, the variety of their interests, and the space
available. This tendency is part of the trend toward less formal
teaching at the kindergarten level and reflects a recognition of
the short attentioa span of the lundergarteo child.

The centers of interest in the kindergarten should be con-
cerned with the environment the child understands, the im-
mediate “here and now" of his living, and they should con-
tribute to his living and learning. Holidays afford excellent op-
portunities for developing a center of interest; children may
set up a toy "factory” at Chrutmas, or a Iiat store at Easter,
or dramatize Halloween activities. Or children may become in-
terested in boats. Some children may wish to paint or draw a
boat; some may develop a picture book about boats; others may
model a boat, or build one of blocks or wood at the work bench.

^ Gertrude tlUdreUi, Child Croicth TAreugh Education, New York, Ronald,
S5.».

The Kindergarten Day 83

And, of course, most of the children ^vill engage in much dramatic
play concerned %vith adult \vorlc on boats. One small group may
become interested in circus activities and another may develop
a center of interest about trains. Some children may wish to
paint or model circus animak. Others may show interest in
creating stories, poems, or songs about the circus, and they may
even begin to do some research by hunting do%vn books on cir-
cuses in their own library comer or in their bcxikshelf at home.
The train activity may continue for several days and engage an in-
creasing number of children and the circus activities may last
for only a fewj days. Or the tcvene nugbt be true. Needless to
say, directing such varied actisities requires great skill on the
part of the teacher.

The teacher also needs skill in guiding the children to choose
suitable centers of interest- If thek interest in, say, a telephone
office is just "passing,* a center of interest developed around this
activity tvill not be very enjoyable or educational. According to
Wills and Stegeman,’ the activity should interest all the dtil-
dren vrho participate and dtould make some contribution to their
"social concepts.” It should affenrd opportunities for individual
as well as group work, for dramatic pby ns well as other creative
expression. These authors also point out a fact familiar to most
experienced teachers: "Sometimes a center of interest which
has no appeal for one group may be actively pursued and en-
joyed by another." Individual differences reveal themselves in
e\'ery situation.

Cleenup Time

After work time comes clean-up, and exerybody helps. Suf-
ficient time should be allowed for this part of the period and
adequate storage space for materials must be provided within
the reach of small children. Some equipment is also necessary—

* Oarice Wdk and WitUam H. Stegeman, Licfng in the Kintiergarten, rev.
ed., Chicago, FoDett, 1958, p. aag.

84 Teacting Ae Kindergaitea Quid

brooms, clotbs, etc.— wifli which to clean up. A very adequate
child-size broom can be made by merely shortening the handle
of a discarded push or conventional broom. Children should
learn early in their kindergarten experience that they are free
to use all equipment and materials, but that this freedom car-
ries with it the responsibility, within reasonable limits, for re-
placing materials after use.

The cleanup period, of course, helps to keep the room
Orderly, but it has educative values as well which far outweigh
this more obvious purpose; it teaches the child to assume a re-
sponsibility and carry it through. The young child’s cleaning
efforts are clumsy at first, but, given adequate equipment and
sufficient time, he readily learns to do a creditable job. Some
children, here as in other areas, may need special help. In some
homes, maids or parents clean up after children; in others, no
One bothers to teach the child to be orderly— either because this
trait is not valued by the parents themselves or because they
apparently believe that the child will somehow acquire it without
guidance.

That children should learn to clean up efficiently after
themselves does not mean that they should take over the work
of the custodian. There are some cleaning jobs beyond tlie
ability of four- and five-year-olds, and even the best efforts of
children cannot match the efficiency of a trained custodian with
his specialized equipment Nevertheless, taking care of their own
cleaning up at their level of ability gives children a valuable
learning experience.

Children should learn to recognize the signal used by the
teacher to indicate that the end of the work hour has arrived
and that it is time to begin putting things away. Children should
be encouraged to share in group cleaning up as well as to assume
responsibility for cleaning up after themselves. Those who have
finished should sit quietly in the library comer or at the cus-
tomary meeting place of the group until the rest have finished.
If they are given adequate tune, commendation for work well

Ihe Kndergartcn Day 85

done, and help by the teacher when the task becomes too dif-
ficult, childien soou leam to take great pride in an orderly room.

The Evaluation Period

The older kindergarten diild is beginning to develop the
ability to fudge his own performance, and school experiences
further his development in this area. For this reason, a
time for evaluation should aKvays be a part of the woik-play
period. Evaluation, of course, takes place informally while chil-
dren are working, but there should be a special time reserved
for it at the end of the hour, when children can take a closer
look at what they have done and discuss how it can be improved.
Evaluatiorv time can also help children leam to accept sug-
gestions from others cOTccming their work. Needless to say,
the teacher should avoid-and help children to avoid— petty
criticism and comparisons of one duld \vith another. It is the
job of the teacher to teach children to give constructive sug-
gestions os well as to help them accept the evaluation of their
classmates. The evaluation period should help the child find
new respect for lumself and for what he has accomplished and
to feel the success and security be needs in order to accomplisb
bigger end better things in the future.

If a group project is occupying the interest of a large number
of children, a progress report may be part of the evaluation
period. If the prefect is of concern to only relatively few drildreu,
evaluation may be carried on more effectively while the children
work. In order to keep kiodeigartneis interested, things need
to be kept moving at all times— particularly during periods when
the children are sitting in a group. Therefore, the evaluation
period must be lively in order to hold the attention of the group.

Children should be encouraged to tell about what they have
made, but not all children should be expected to discuss their
work every day. The teacher determines which children can
profit most form the actirity on any particular day. By calling

86 Teaching the Kindergar te n Child

the attenb'oa of the group to the achievenjent5 of three or four
children (different ones every day), the leather both encourages
the shy young artist to talk about his picture or sculpture and
demonstrates to the other chSdren that something commendable
can be found in the W’orfc of everyone. The child himself may
voice dissatisfaction \vith some aspect of his work; perhaps he
is concerned because the colors on his picture ran or because
the dog he has modeled doesn't look like old Spot. In this case
the teacher— with the child’s pemission-may ask for constructive
suggestions from the other children. At no time does she solicit
or encourage destructive criticism from the group. She must make
every effort to ensure that the child whose work is under discus-
sion does not become discouraged as a result of this activity.

Participation in these evaluation sessions, both as critic and
as creator, should demonstrate to the child that criticism can and
should be fair and impersonal With the teacher to help by
creating an environment in which he feels secure and accepted,
the child should learn not to fear being fudged. The teacher
must make certain that the child himself is a%vare of his accom-
plishments and his abilities, so that he can respond to criticism
vrith confidence, kQO\ving that he will be able to do what is
necessary in order to improve.

Often the child himself is able to tell bow he can improve
his work. The development of the capacity for self-evaluation
should he encouraged by giving children many opportunities
to fudge their own performances. Relatively few five-year-olds
develop this ability to any great degree, but some children can
evaluate their o%vn efforts in a rather mature way. Children should
always he assured that they can meet the standards of improve-
ment set by themselves or by their peers.

The Rest Period

Rest is universally considered a necessary part of the regimen
of the young child at school. A rhytlun of rest and activity is one

The Kindersarten Day 87

of the fundamental needs of man. The gro\ving child requires a
great amount of muscular activity vyhich must be balanced with
sleep and other relaxation. After a short rest period, the child s
emotional control, his ability to pay attention, and his general
behavior are improved. Children should also be helped to learn
to relax when awake; this kind of relaxation is too often neglected
by adults in a rush to "get things done."

The special needs of a particular group of children, their age,
the general daily program, the sire of the group, and the length
of the daily session are all factors to be considered in determining
the kind of rest period best suited to the children’s needs. It is
important, ho\vever, that a rest tune be part of every day’s pro-
gram, for consistency will help to establish the habit of relaxing.
The teacher of lindergarten-age children should watch for signs
of fatigue, such as excessive crying, irritability, or shrilbess of
voice, sbee chUdren of this age may fail to recognize that they
are tired and these behavior manifestations may be the best
indication that they need xest

The rest period may vary from fifteen to thirty mbutes,
dependbg on the factors mentioned. It is usually scheduled near
the middle of the session, foUowbg a period of activity. *1116 room
b which children rest should be well ventilated and the shades
dra\vn to create an atmosphere of quiet Either cots or rugs are
satisfactory, although cots are of course preferable. Some simple
precautions should be taken to prevent the child’s resting on a
soUed surface or in a draft Tying or tapbg a brightly colored
piece of yam on the "up” »de of the lug. plus a little care in
folding and storing, svill ensure a clean resting surface for the
child. Testing the room with a lifted candle will indicate the
source of drafts, and placing a lUg against an offendbg door
will help to prevent moving air currents from blowing on children
directly.

At first not all children will be able to relax; some may need
to begin their rest period before otiiers in order to relax tiior-

88 Teaching tiie Einder^iten CStild

oughly. Much of the success of this period of the day depends
on the preparation made by the teacher. The children may learn
the meaning of rela.T3tion by discussing the need for rest wth
the teacher or by playing “rag doIL” Throughout the period, the
teacher should remain quiet, talking only when necessary to help
children who are having difficulty in relaxiDg. She may point
out children who look comfortable and relaxed or gently pat a
child who appears tense. As a rule, when the teacher calls children
to put their rugs or cots away, she chooses first the children who
are able to rest completely from the beginning of the period,
allowing the child who relaxes slowly to have a longer period
of rest.

Lunch Time

It is now generally considered desirable for young children
to be given some kind of simple nourishment toward the middle
of the kindergarten morning and afternoon. Since a good many
young cliildren dandle over breakfast, it is especially important
that nourishment of some kind be provided at the morning ses*
slon. Eating should not be immediately preceded or followed by
vigorous activity. In many kindergartens children are given fruit
juice or milk and crackere following the rest period.

In addition to satisfying nutritional needs, this Tunch period”
gives children an excellent opportunity to learn and practice
good eating habits, to develop acceptable table manners, and to
experience the satisfaction of doing things for themselves in a
social group. Children can lake the responsibility for folding and
distributing napkins, placing the cups, counting out ilje correct
number ^vith the help of the teacher, or even pouring out their
own juice.

Teachers can expect four- and fiTO-year-olds to spill their
milk or juice at lunch time. Therefore they should keep adequate
cleanup equipment nearby and pay no more attention than abso-
lutely necessary to accidents.

The Kindergarten Day 89

Other Aspects of the Kindergarten Day

I\hytlims, games, and sin^g ate impoitaot activities in the
kindergarten, and time should be provided for them in every
day’s schedule. In some schools the i)eriod allotted to these activi-
ties regularly follow's the rest period; in other schools it follows
the midsession snack. If the latter plan is in use, it may be nec-
essary to restrict the activities somesvhat since eating, as we have
said, should not be followed by vigorous exercise and es'en sing-
ing for young diildren is accompanied by much bodily movement
Following this actiwty, and just before the cluld returns home,
the teacher (or a child) may wish to tell a story, or the group
may wish to dramatize a familiar story. This period is an integral
part of the Idndergarten day. and ample time should be allotted
to it, with allowances for special conditions of weather or sdioel
routine.

Learning to put on his outer clothing shoxild be part of the
educational program for the young child; sufficient time should
be allowed for this important activity at recess and at "going
home” time. To deny the child the opportunity to learn to become
independent Is to depri\*e him of one of the most important values
of the Idndergarten.

At least a half hour in the kindergarten day should be
devoted to outdoor play, followed by a few minutes’ rest Play
is an important part of the young child’s life; it helps Tiim to
develop many o! the social and physical skills he will need as he
goes through life. Children do not need to be taught to play;
when properly clothed, they enjoy vigorous outdoor play regard-
less of weather.

Suggested Schedules

As we noted earlier, no sin^ plan for kindergarten activities
can be applied to all situations. In some sdiools children remain
all day, having both noon lunch and afternoon nap in the Idnder-

90 Teaching the Kindergarten C3iild

gartea. In other schools children attend a single tw'o-and-a-half*
or three-hour session. In still others there are three “shifts " and
the problem is to give children the best possible education in the
shortest time available.

However, there are certain principles which can be fol-
lowed in planning activities for four- and five-year-olds. As we
have said, there should he an alternation of quiet and vigorous
activities throughout the day; young children cannot remain quiet
for long periods and they may become overstimidated by too
much activity. There must he an ea^ transition from one activity
to another without the necessity of constantly rearranging the
room. Other principles have been suggested throughout this
chapter. To help new teachers who may have to malce their own
schedules, a few typical programs are presented below. The first
two schedules are for half-day (morning or afternoon) kinder-
gartens: 1^^ ^or a full-day program.

1. Kindergartens where children remain outside until time for
school opening.

A.M.

9:00-^530

9:30—10:20

10:20—10:30

10:30-10:45

10:45-11:10

11:10—11:30

11:30—12:00

Opening
Roll csll
Conversation
FUnoing
Wotfc-play period
Cleanup
Evaluation
Toileting
Washing hands
Midsession lunch
Rest
Sin^g
Rhythms
Story time
Getting ready to
go home
Outdoor play

1:25—2:00

2:10—2:25

2:25-2:40

2:40—3:10

3:10—3:30

The Kindergarten Day 61

2. Xindergartens where children enter iulormally as they arrive
at school and begin working. This schedule makes planning
some\vhat more difficult; if attendance records must be sent
to the principal immediately after opening of school, the work-
play period may have to be interrupted. Some teachers using
tliis approach plan with childfen for the neat day at the end
of the period, during evaluation time.

A.M.

8:50-9:50

9:50-10:20

xo;afr-io:3S

10:35-11:00

11:0^11:30

11:30-12:00

Wcrrk-play period

Cleanup

Evaluation

Flaoning for iCTt day

Roll call

Outdoor play

Toileting

Washing hands

Midsesrioo lundi

Rest

Singing

Rhythms

Outdoor play

Story dme

Conversation

Getting ready to leave

P.M.

12:50-1:30

1:30-2:00

2:00—2:15

2:15-2:40

2:40-3:05

5:05-3:30

3. Kindergartens where childreo remain all day.

9:00-9:30

9:30—10:10

10 : 10 — 10:20

10:20—10:30

10:30-10:45

10:45-11:15

11:15—12:00

Opening

Roll caD

Planning

Work-play period

Cleanup

Evaluation

Toileting

Washing hands

Juice

Rest

Outdoor play
Story hoar

Getting ready foe lunch

92 Teaching the Eindergarfon Child

12:00—12:45

12:45—1:00

isoo— 2:oo
2:00—2:30

2:30-3:00

3:00-3:30

Limdi

Toileting

Getting ready for rest
Rest

Putting away cots
MiO: and crad^rs
Singing
Rhythms
Outdoor ptay

In colder areas, where dressing for activities out of doors
takes time, outdoor play sliouM probably be scheduled at tbe
end of the day. Just before children go home. If the same room
is used for both lunch and rest, and the teacher has an assistant,
children may be sent outdoors wbile disbes and other luncheon
equipment are being removed. All other time allotments are sug-
gested only: teachers will need to make adaptations to suit tbclr
oivn circuTOStances.

Planning for kindergarten acUiities should probably be done
on a iveekly basis, to ensure a variety of activities for all children.
Some teachers feel inadequate in music or art and may tend to
give these areas insuiBcieDt attention unless they make very
specific plans. Teachers who are proficient in these fields may
tend to overemphasize them in the program.

The First Day of School

Seldom if ever is it possible to use tbe regular schedule on
the first day of school If children have had an opportunity to
visit the kindergarten before officially enrolling and to experience
some of its satisfactions, their first experience with the group may
not be so formidable. But if everything is new to the children,
the teacher must be very understanding. Some children may
become frightened if the teacher appears harried or tense. Good
planning can help the teacher to be calm, patient, and friendly.
Although not all materials and equipment ivill be used during

The Kindergarten Day 63

the first few days, she should select and malce available a variety
of toys, puzzles, blocks, crayons, paper, story books, and doU-play
equipment to make the kindergarten room as attractive and invit-
ing as possible to children.

In some schools children come in small groups— perhaps four
the first day, five more the second, and so on— until the entire
group is assembled. This arrangement enables teachers to become
better acquainted with children and to give them help where it is
needed. And children seem to adjust to the group situation more
easily if they are not overwhelmed all at once by large numbers
of other children. Kindergartners should be prercgislered if pos-
sible so that the child and the teacher, as well as the parent and
the teacher, can have an opportunity to become acquainted.
Knowing something in advance about the group will help the
teacher to make adjustments for them. If registration is done on
the first day of school, it should be handled in some place other
than the kindergarten. Teachers need all their time for children
on opening day.

As children arrive, they are shown where to keep sweaters
and coats and where they may store any treasures they bring
to share with the class. The teacher then helps the children to
become Interested in some activity, making sure that they have
time enough to look at all the "wares" the kindergarten has to
offer. Some cdiUdreo may not be quite ready to participate and
may prefer to remain on the fringe of things for a few days.
The teacher should encourage all children to participate, but
never in such a way that they become frightened or concerned
about tlieir inability to do so.

Although cleaning up is important, this routine cannot be
established tbe first day. Howcfver, diildren should be encouraged
to return materials and eqm’pment to the proper place and should
be introduced to the procedures used to prepare the kindergarten
for the next activity.

It may not he possible to establish the routine of lunch
for several days, particularly if money must be collected from

94 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

parents. Because resting may be associated svith some unpleas-
antness at home, it may be best to dispense with a regular rest
period until children become accustomed to the kindergarten.
For the first few days, children can relax quietly at tables svith
their heads down when they show signs of becoming overstimu-
lated.

Most childern will respond to music and rhythms even on
the first day. Teaching tho child a short song may help to give
him a feeling of really having learned something at sdiool. Story
time is usually an enjoyable way of ending the session. The
teacher, however, must be especially careful to select a story
which is short yet interesting— a story \vith the kind of action
and humor even tense or nervous children will enjoy. Marjorie
Flack’s “Angus" stories, the familiar “Peter Rabbit," or Lois
Lcnsld’s ’Xiltle Auto" will probably hold the interest of even
first-day kindergartners.

Schoob vary in their policy concerning the presence of par-
ents during the first few days of sdiool. In some schoob the parent
b encouraged to bring the child and then leave imme^ately.
Thb is suggested in the belief that some children exhibit unde-
sirable behavior only when the parent b present and if left alone
can be integrated into the group more readily. Some schools
encourage parents to stay a few minutes with the child so that
he does not feel abandoned.

Tliere are individual differences among parents as well as
children and no one policy can solve all problems. \Vhether
parents leave immediately or remain for a while may have to
be determined by a comhinaUon of factors— the child in question,
the size of the group, the poBcy of the school— and the parents
own point of view. ^Vhat svorks for one parent and one child
may not work at all for other parents and other children. Each
teacher will have to solve the problem in her own way, within
the frame^vork of the school’s administrative policy and her own
understanding of children and parents.

The size of the group and Its general composition ^viU largely

Tie Kindergtirten Day QS

deteimine the events of the first day. The teacher’s goal, of coiirse,
is to make this first esrperienoe sudi that children want to tetum
again the next day. Only when children can feel comfortable in
the kindergarten— when they are confident that their teacher
accepts them— are they ready to move on to whole-hearted par-
ticipation in a full londergarten day.

Problems for Discussion

1. Should the kindergarten schedule for a group of children from
underprivileged homes differ from that for children from upper-
income families? In what respects? What would be your reasons
for using similar or different sihedules lor these tsvo groups?

a. Miss Dowson’s policy is to restrict the use of certain materials to
the second semester of kindergarten because, she says> children are
too immature at the begiiming of the year to use them properly
and also because she feels that she needs periodic “surprises’' in
the way of new mateciak to hold the interest of children through-
out the year. How do you react to Miss Dosvson's reasoning? Do
you agree or disagree with her position? NVhy?

3. Mrs. Rosen believes that it is “too restrictive* to have a schedule
in the kindergarten. If there is a sdtedule, she feels, teaching lacks
'creativity, * Miss Ford, hotwer, says that one can teach mth a
schedule and sbll have flodbility. Watb which position do you
agree? ^Vhy?

4 . Your principal has told you that he disapproves of providing a
test period for children on the grounds that “if children are old
enough to come to school, they are old enough to dispense with
rest periods." How would you answer your principal’s reasoning
in this situation?

5. How might the schedule of activities in the kindergarten vary in
the foUcjwing situarions?

a. 25" below icto weather

b. All-day rain

c. 70° weather

d. Many children with colds

e. Children just inoculated with Salk vaceme

06 Teaching die Kindergarten Child

Suggested Additional Reading

CuBdn, Mabel, Teaching the Youngest. New York, The Maanillan Co.,
J9-I9. PP- 201-17.

EUis, Mary Jackson, The Kindergarten Log. Minneapolis, T. S. Deni-
son and Co., 1955.

Foster, Josephine, and Headley, Neith, £Jnca(/on in the Kindergarten.
New York, American Book Company, 2948, pp. 120-24.

Forest, Use, Earhj Years at School. New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
1949. II. i 23 -a 4 i*

Fox, Lorene, et al. Ail Children Want to Learn. New Yts-k; Grolier
Society, Inc., 2954.

Cans, Boma; Stendfer, Ceiia; and Almy, Millie, Teaching Foung
Children. Yonkers, N. Y., World Book Company, 1952, pp. 57-117.

Headley, Neith, “Good Education for Five-Year-Olds." Childhood
Education, March 1954, XXX, 314-16.

— , "Kindergarten Comes of Age." N. E. A. Journal, March 1954,
XUn. 1S3‘54<

Kellogg, Rhoda, Nursery Scliool Guide. Boston, Houghton MifHin Co.,

Lee, Dorris May, "What Should We Expect in Our Kinderguteof”
Education, February 1954, LXXfV, $, 362-63.

Rudolph, Marguerita, Lioing and Learning in tlxe Nursery School.
New York, Harper & Brothers, 1954.

Teachers’ Guide to Education in Eotfy Childhood. Compiled by Bu-
reau of Elementary Education of California, Sacramento, 1956, pp.
531-40.

Wann, Kenneth D., "Some Values and Needs of Co-operative Nursery
Schools." Understanding Children, April 1956, XXV, 40-47.

What Mahes a Good Kindergarten Year? Report of project presented
at A.C.E.I. Cbnference m Los Angeles, Association for Cliildhood
Hducition International, April 1957.

Wills. Clarice, and Stegeman, Willie, Lfofng fn the Kindergarten.
Rev. ed., Chicago, FoUett Publishing Company, 1956.

The Kindergarten Day 97

grow farther apart" To attempt to prescr\'e the creativity of child-
hood hy freedom and informahfy in education is, Rannclls * says,
to misunderstand the nature of it "Creativity in adolescence is a
new kind of process, entirely [diaracterized by] conscious con-
struction" rather than spontaneity.

The Young Child as Artist

In creative expression as in other phases of gro^vth, there
are no short cuts. The child needs time to live completely through
each stage of artistic development. It is impossible to define
specific grade or age expectations in the arts; however, the child
can be e-tpected to grow continuously in perception of form and
relationships, in motor coordination, and in ability to organize
ideas. The child who is developing normally “exhibits a steady
progression from ‘scrubbing' through experimentation with line
and form to representative work. The teacher who works ^vilh
j’oungsters in the kindergarteD-primaiy grades can expect to find
childrea in all of these stages." * ‘The teacher of young children
who is convinced that all children possess in some degree the
power to create will see her role as that of nurturing growth
rather than of trying to direct it into some predetennined pattern.
Therefore, she must imderstand how children grow, how they see
their world, and how they reoigasme and interpret, each in his
o%vn way, the experiences which their world offers. She will know,
too, that the grcnvth fostered by creative expression is more
important than what the child creates.

What the young child draws is part of his ovvn subjective
experience; he expresses what is in his mind at the moment. The
kindergarten child will draw largest the things which are impor-
tant to him, giving less attention to, and perhaps omitting enlirdy,

• E. W, RamseHs, “Aesthetic Expressiaa «Ti:t Learning,’" /ouwol of AesSfietics
ofKi Art CriHchm, r^7, V, 314-320.

* Roma Cans, Celia B. Sten^er, and hlilKe Almy, Teaching Toung Children,
Ycmlteis, N. Y., World Boole, 1952, p. 287.

100 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

things which are of little ngni&conce in his scheme. According
to some authorities,* childrea are likely to emphasize not only
detaUs which interest them but also those which represent "trou-
ble areas." Thus the young dtild who is having some difficulty
learning to button his clothes may adorn the garment of the
Egures he draws with outsize buttons. The child who is experienc-
ing a great deal of difficulty in adjusting to a ^e^v baby in the
family may reflect his problem in his painting by drawing the
baby very large In proportion to other things in the picture.

The kindergartnet nearly always paints pleasant things in
gay colors.* He is not inhibited, as most adults are, by the appar-
ent need to reproduce in what he paints the actual color of an
object, particularly if his subject is a "happy" thing. Thus a pet
puppy might be rendered in red or green and a kitten in bright
yellow. This distortion of size and color in the creative work of
children often gives excellent insights into aspects of the environ-
ment which have special emotional significance to them.

However, not all distortion in children's painting is emotion-
ally significant, and not all teachers are capable of analyzing it.
The kindergarten child has simply not lived long enough to
understand all parts of hi$ eovironment in all their interrelation-
ships. Often children's artisUc creations omit details which seem
essential from the adult point of view— or include some which
adults think unnecessary or superfluous. Distances and sizes
which appear large to the child often appear quite different to
the adult. The world from the vantage point of a four- or five-
year-old is not the same world as seen from adult heighf-a fact
wHch adults all too frequently forget, (We shall have more to
say later about the fallacy of applying adult standards to the
work of children.)

Then, too, as we have pointed out, young children are un-
hampered in their self-expression by any felt need to make their

• Ruth Strang, An Introdactlin to ChUJ SluJ^, New Yotlc, Macmillan, 1951.

* Lucy Sprazuc Mitcbell, Our Chtidrm ond Our Schools, New York, Simon &
Schuster, X950, p. 41.

Creative Experiences in Art 101

pictures reflect reality. Nor does the young child care whether
or not his pictures are beautifuL Wlat he wants, as Goodenough
puts it, is "to tell what he has in mind. Details do not trouble
him; he goes straight for what is to him the main fact. So if he
wants to draw a man wth trousers on, he draws the man first
and adds the trousers afterwards. The fact that the legs show
through the trousers does not trouble him a bit The man is there,
so are his trousers, and who could ask for anything more com-
plete? If he ^va^ls to draw a little girl picking flowers in a field,
he first draws the girl, then the flowers, and extends one of the
arms dmvn to the flowers at her feet, in happy disregard of the
laws of anatomy."*

The Teacher's Rote: Guidance, net Criticism

Few adults thrive creatively in an atmosphere of critidsro.
Children, even more than adults, are easily disecruraged by tm-
favorable comments on their attempts at self.eipres$iOD. Tbe
teadier's role is to draw out the creative power each child pos-
sesses. This objective can best be attained by sympathizing with
the child's efforts, by developing in him confidence in his own
ability, and by withholding criticism based on arbitrary judgment
of what is '’correct* in art. When the child learns that the teacher
appreciates Ms creative efforts he relaxes; he is eager to show her
what he has created. "Please come and see my picture" will be
heard more often than *I can't do it"

Needless to say, a cMId should not be given praise for xvoik
which is not the result of his best efforts. But no matter how
inadequate the aeative product if it represents sincere effort it
should be given recognitmn- This meuu that the teacher has the
responsibility of knosving not rmly ho'v children in general de-
velop but also bow each in^vidual child in the kindergarten is
gro\ving in creativity.

• Florence L. Goodenough, Devtlojrniental Ptyehobgy, New York, Appleton-
Centuiy.Crofts, 1&45. p. 405.

102 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

The child of Jdndergarten age is interested mainly in the
activity itself rather than in the finished product. The child of
three or four paints purely for the pleasure of applying color
to paper, with no thought of trying to represent objects or people
in his environment or to express a specific feeling. As he matures,
his paintings may still appear meaningless to adults, but they
come to represent ideas to him— even though he may not decide
just what ideas until he completes the picture. Often with the
four-year-old, whether he is attempting realistic representation
or merely applying pretty colors, the idea evolves as he works
If one should be so unthinking as to ask him what he is painting,
he might well reply, "I haven’t decided yet”

In the area of the creative arts the imposition of adult stand-
ards on the work of children serves only to stifle their natural
inventiveness and spontaneity. Lowenfeld exhorts adults not to
impose their own conceptions on the child: “All modes of expres-
sion but the child’s own arc foreign to him.” •

There can be no single standard of achievement in the arts.
Tlie process through which a child moves and the product which
he creates are, to a great extent, dictated hy his developmental
level. His way of working cannot be compared \vith that of
another cluld, much less with that of an adult. The only valid
standards of achievement in the art program for young children
are those based on the child’s own past performance. The child’s
creativity must be honored and regjccted if he is to grow natu-
rally in his art experiences. Knowing the child better will help
the teacher understand how he expresses himself creatively at
each developmental stage.

Lowenfeld * points out that since the child’s thinking is dif-
ferent from that of the adult, his expression also will be different.
To a five-year-old, a tree is “something undifferentiated, a trunk
with something rather indefinite on top." To a ten-year-old, a

* Viltor Lcmvnleld, Crtatiee and ttenCal Croteffi, rev. ed. New York,
Macmlllin, 195a. p. 3 -

• ibUL, pp. a, 10.

Creative Experiences in Art 103

tree is something to cJimb; to tfie siiteen-year-old, it is part of
the environment vvith which he is intimately acquainted. As the
child matures, his “subjectiw relationships' to the tree change.
The subject matter— the tree— has remained the same, but it is
seen differently, depending on the developmental le\’el of the
child. For reason, it is undesirable and perhaps even impos-
sible to teach a child how to draw a tree. Even if the teacher
tried to do so, the Idndergartner would be unable to understand
the tree in all its detail and in proper relationship to other aspects
of the environment. According to Lo%\*enfe!d, it is this discrepancy
between how the child expresses himself relative to such things
as trees and what the adult thinl-< is 'correct' that causes most
of the difficulties in ait teaching.

Teaching the Creotive SktiU

Although she does not attempt to introduce adult standards
of performance, the teacher must not be merely a passive student
of child development; she needs to help the child to grow. She
must Imow when and how to introduce techniques; she must be
an active guide, helping the child to grow in his use and apprecia-
tion of art media. The teadier remains in the background, but
she is alwaj"? ready to help the child with his problems of self-
expression. She teadies him whenever be shows readiness for nesv
leaniing compatible with his maturity Je\ el-remeinbering always
diat “i>reschool j-ears are not the time to emphasize mastery of
the techniques of drawing and painting." *•

Children will need help with technique as they mature in
their abilit)’ to handle art media. As a rule, the teachers focus in
introducing a speciSc technique should be on helping the child
to reach a goal set by the chQd himself. kVhen the child becomes
concerned because the field in his picture does not "lie down,"
for example, it is time for the teacher to introduce tedmiques
>• Stnng, ep. tit, p. i8i.

104 Teaching the Kindersarteo Child

of using color and perspective that will assist him in achieving
his purpose. If the child is concerned because the horse he is
trying to draw loots more like a dog, the teacher may help him
to recognize certain physical characteristics, such as leg length,
which differentiate the two animals. Or she may help the very
young child to keep from constantly dripping color on his picture
by showing him how to wipe his brush on the edge of the paint
jar.

In guiding the child, the teacher should he aware that any
technique which does not help the child to express belter what
he has in mind is of little value to him. She should not 'show”
the child that the sky should be brought do^vu to the horizon line.
The four- or five-year-old is not ready for such understanding;
he "knows” that the sk^ is above him and that there is “air"
behveen It and the ground. The teacher should neither “improve"
the child's work nor give him a model to copy. As Cole has stated,
the moment the teacher “draws on the board or paints on paper,
that moment is the child crippled and inhibited. That moment
is be ruined for confidence in his own way of doing. Hands offl"

The teacher who understands bow children grow and learn
is aware tliat it is the child himself who sets his own standards.
It is her responsibility to see that these standards are constantly
chan^ng, so that as the child matures he becomes eager to
express himself at increasingly higher levels, and increasingly
capable of doing so. But the important thing is that it is the child
who must exercise judgment and set the pace for his own devel-
opment

The Creative Environment

The creative power inherent in every child needs an environ-
ment that is both stimulating and semire. It should be an environ-
ment ridi in experiences and materials, in which the child is free

** Natalie Hobiuson Cole, The Arts tn the Classroom, New Yorl^ Day,
1940, p. g.

Creative Experiences in Art 105

to create, to investigate, to manipulate. The Idndergarten should
be a happy place, full of color, waimth, and love, where the child
is secure in the knowledge that be has the understanding of his
teacher.

Rather th^in criticizing the chQd's efforts, guidance by the
teacher might better take the form of making sure that maleriak
for self-expression are asTiilable, that time is prmaded, and, above
all, that experiences are so arranged that creative expression will
be stimulated.

The child should have many materials to work with— not too
many, for o\-crabundancc only confuses young children, but
cn(nigh to inritc and challenge him-and they should be made
readily accessible to him. Much of the art experience of the
kindergarten child is in the nature of exploring the possibilities
of materials with s^hich he is as yet quite unfamiliar. The kinder-
garten s^hich prorides children only with crayons, or only with
clay or easel paints, is depris-tog them of the opportunity to
experiment and so to learn. Making tlircc or four art activities
and materials available to children stimulates their creoUrity; a
child who is not “inspired" to draw in era)!** may find great joy
and stimulation in working with clay.

It is not enough to ha>x; materials; the child must also have
ideas to express. And ideas come from experiences. Trips anmod
the school and the pbyground. excursions to the zoo, stories,
songs-all furnish children with ideas which they can express
creatively.

The kindergarten teacher can also help the child to find joy
and satisfaction in his crrati>'e efforts by mounting and displaying
the creative expressions of children. Regardless of his skill, each
chOd should from time to time experience the pleasure and pride
that come from haring some of his wxjrk on display. Pictures done
by children can be mounted attractively on dark construction
paper, which sets off most effectiwly the bright colors children
losT to use. Some teachers nuke a sort of sculptured frame, willi
mitered comers, for %ciy special pictures. In addition to giving

100 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

children some recognition for their achievement, displays of their
products add greatly to the ddcor of the kindergarten. Children's
pictures and sculptures are often charming.

Few adults ^vould find much Inspiration surrounded only
by artistic creations on their own level of ability. Children, too,
need to have experiences with pictures and other art products
which they have not created. Displaying photographs or repro-
ductions of paintings or sculptures not only makes the classroom
a more attractive place but also helps children to grow in their
appreciation of the beautiful. It may also stimulate them to
further creative expression. Many teachers maintain a file of good
pictures on themes of interest to children. Some of these may
become a more or less permanent part of the general scheme of
decoration in the kindergarten; others might be posted on a
bulletin board and changed periodically.

In choosing art products for display as in every other aspect
of the creative arts program, the teacher should avoid imposing
her own tastes and predilections on the children. Rare is the five-
year-old who can derive pleasure from looking at the "Mona
Lisa.” The children's interests should he the basis for the teacher’s
collection of pictures; but pictures of animals and children—
themes which children enjoy— can be aesthetically satisfying.
They need not be sentimental, "cute,” or poorly executed or re-
produced. Children can also appreciate so-called abstract art; in
fact, they are often capable of enjoying patterns of line and color
much more directly and more enthusiastically than adults, be-
cause they are not limited by rigid preconceptions of what con-
stitutes “art.”

Most kindergarten teachers also post seasonal pictures-pic-
tures of Santa Claus and his helpers in December, Halloween
illustrations in October, or pictures of the Easter Bunny in the
spring. These decorations are traditional in the kindergarten.
Children enjoy looking at illustrations of these subjects as well as
creating them; they are spots of color and gaiety in the classroom.
And they often inspire children to do art work of their own.

Creative Experiences in Art 107

TTie MaterioU of Art

As we have pointed out, the teacher not only helps the child
to grow to more mature ways of expression, but also introduces
him to as many materials as possible through which he can
express himself. There is a wde variety of media which even
the kindergarten child can handle, and he should have the pleas-
ure of communicating his ideas, feelings, and visual impressions
in these many forms of expression.

Because crayoning is not as messy as painting, there may be
a tendency to overemphasize crayons in the kindergarten. But
they are only one of many media. Objects can be defined sharply
in easel paints as well as in crayon— an effect that most children
seem to like. Easel painting, according to some investigators,'*
seems to be preferred particularly by children who appear to be
worHog out emotional problems throu^ creative expression—
perhaps, in part, because it is very often a solitary activi^.
Crayoning, on the other band, can be quite a sodal affair, accom-
panied by much interchange of ideas. Pictures done with easel
paint, further, have a certain amount of permanence. And al-
though the process of creating may be more important to the
kindergarten child rhan the finished product, he also finds satis-
faction in being able to show parents and other children his
artistic creation in final form.

Drawing with chalk on CTlber wet or dry paper is interesting
to most diildren if for no other reason than its novelty. Because
it is a rather messy activity, few mothers introduce it at home-
Very striking effects can be obtained by using wet drawing paper.
It tears less easfly than easel paper, colors are vivid, and die
dry chalk slides easily on the paper. A light coat of fixative will
preserve pictures done with

The young child should also have experience with media
that encourage rhythmic movement and unrestrained creativity,
»* Use Forest, Earty Yean at Softool New York, McGraw-HiH, 1949.

lOS Teaching the Eindeigarten Child

as svell as giving play to larger muscles. The child can manipulate
sand, clay, and finger paints pleasurably— and for an infinite
length of timo-w-ith little concern for the result On the other
hand he may produce ciFccth'c products with these materials. In
ivorking with clay, the child has not only the pleasure of squeez-
ing, squashing, mixing, and rolling, hot also the /oy (hat comes
from creating something beautiful— and this is emotional satis-
faction indcedl

Even if the rhythmic mox-oment and enjoyment of the activ-
it)' itself arc the most important asi»octs of creating for the young
cliild, he is still learning. Creating with wood may mean much
apparently meaningless pounding for the sheer satisfaction of
“maWng the nails go in," uath little thought of the need for them
to hold somctliing together. But merely by driving nails into
^^‘Ood the child is learning a good de.!] about the nature of
material and how he can manipubte it. So also with other cre-
ative media.

Commercially produced finger paints may be proliibltively
expensive lo communities where funds for the purchase of mate-
rials ore limited. Many teachers substitute liquid laundry starch,
adding a drop or tNS'o of food coloring to furnish tlie colored base.
Food coloring is preferred over easel paints for this purpose be-
cause some varieties of the latter may be poisonous. ^Vhen chil-
dren are painting with their liands, there is greater danger that
some of the material may find its way to their mouths tlian when
they arc painting svith brushes at the easel.

For teachers who prefer a thicker starch mWurc than the
bottled variety, very satisfactory finger paint can be made from
the following recipes (The last hvo formuhs make a someivhst
fluifier and more "slippery” paint.)

1

la tablespoons laundry starch
2 quarts bolbng water
oil of cloves
.vqyiitahle coloring

Creative Experiences in Art 109

Dissolve starch in a little vranQ w^er. Add boiling water
and stir until mixture thickens* Add a drop of oil of cloves
to preserve, put mixture into jars, and stir in coloring.

n

box laundry starch
1 quart boiling water
^ cup soap flakes

16 cup talcum powder (optional)
vegetable coloring

Mix starch with small amount of water to creamy consist-
ency. Add boiling water and cook to glossy transparency.

Cool somewhat and add soap aitd talcum, four into jars
and add coloring.

in

16 cup laundry starch
il6 cups boiling Nvater
16 cup soap flakes
1 tablespoon glycerine
vegetable coloring

Mis starch %vith small amount of water. Add boiling water
and cook until thick and glossy. Beat soap flakes in briskly.

Cool and add glycerine. Put is jars and add coloring. 71113
finger paint wU keep for several days, depending on the
temperature of the room. It is preferable, of course, to have
fresh paint every day.

Inexpensive shelf paper or glazed butcher’s paper make
very good substitutes for the comfflcicial finger-painting material,
which is radier expensive.

There seems to be some difference of opinion regarding the
kind of clay children should work with in the kindergarten.
Some teachers prefer plasticene, or clay that has been mixed
with oil, to the >vater-mixed variety, because plasticene never
hardens and is consequently less messy than water-mixed clay
and can be used over and over again. Despite these advantages,
plasticene has one characteristic which seems to be somewhat
frustrating to small children. Unless it is stored in a restively

110 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

warm place, ft becomes exceedingly stiff and must be softened
by manipulation. By the time it has become soft enough to use,
many daildren have tired of the material and so get little pleas-
ure from it other than the manipulation. And even this they find
difficult; children's hands are so small that they can manage
only very small pieces of this material when it is stiff. Some
teachers feel, too, that plastieene may become a carrier of infec-
tion since it can be, and usually is, used over and over again for
a long period of time. A further disadvantage is that plastieene,
because it never hardens, cannot be painted or otherwise deco-
rated. It does, however, come in a variety of colors. Pieces made
of water-mired clay, on the other hood, can he decorated with
enamel colors or easel paints. To keep the paint from rubbing
off, a thin coat of shellac or varnish should be appL'ed over Jt

Lacking both plastieene and water-mixed clay, the kinder-
garten teacher can make fairly satisfactory modeling material
by mixing one cup of flour, three teaspoonfuls of alum, % cup
of salt, vegetable coloring, and enough water to hold the in-
gredients together. This 'clay” is not so lasting os the commercial
'^ety, but, because it can be made rather gay in color, children
sometimes prefer ft. Like ordinary water-mixed clay, this home-
made material must he kept in an airtight container. Because it
contains slum, which is an emetic, the teacher must take care
to see that none of it finds its way to children's mouths.

Cutting and pasting are activities which kindergarten chil-
dren enjoy. Many of them, however, lack the necessary coordina-
tion to perform these activities neatly. This does not mean that
the activity should not be included in the program; it means
merely that, in this area as in others, children need a certain
minimum of experience and maturity before they can do a
finished piece of work. Some children enjoy cutting up pieces
of colored paper to create pictures; others may produce a three-
dimensional shape; others may attempt to make masks or scrap-
books. Blunt-end scissors are generally provided for young chil-
dren, but some children seem to need pointed ones to create

Qreative Experiences in Art 111

wliat they have in mind. Here also there are great individual
differences; many "fours" and "fivesT can use sharp scissors safely
\vith very little supervision. Usually girls have more success in
these activities than hoys, perhaps because of developmental
differences and perhaps also because of some differences in ex-
perience and cultural expectations. Because girls tend to stay
closer to borne and are interested in less active things than
boys are, they engage to a greater extent in such activities as
coloring, cutting, and pasting. And because they have become
successful Moth these activities, they tend to practice them more
than do boys.

Building actinties in the londeigarlen involve dramatic play,
physical exercise, and creative expression. Because it can serve
so many purposes, coostructing with blocks is a very important
part of the kindergarten program. The more shapes and sizes of
blodrs there are, the more possibilities the blocks offer. The
blocks should be smooth-surfaced and so designed that the
various shapes fit well together.

Sometimes children will build ")ust for the day." At other
times they ^vill vvish to preserve the structure so that they can
add to it or play vvith it later. IdeaUy, there should he sufficient
space in the kindergarten so that a structure can be allo\ved
to stand for as long as the children remain interested in it. Should
space be at a premium, a sketch of the completed project done
by the teacher will help (diildren to rebuild quickly next day.

Teachers differ, sometiines sharply, concerning the desir-
ability of "functional reality" in much that is constructed in
the kindergarten. Some teachers maintain that four- and five-
year-olds are capable of only imperfect planning and are, there-
fore, satisfied xvith imperfect structures and equipment which
does not function to any de^ee like the “real thing." In a
kindergarten holding to this philorophy, children build cars,
planes, and trains that cannot move because they are constructed
of blocks. Such structures may need to be rebuilt almost hourly
because the diildren lack the knowledge and skills necessary

112 Teadiing the Kiaderg 2 uten Child

to make wliat they build hold together. The teacher, however,
never interferes by giving suggestions Or offering guidance, ex-
cept when necessary to ensure the safety of children.

The other point of view holds that the teacher should guide
children so that what they build actually functions. This approach
calls for greater mechanical skill on the part of the teacher tK^n
if the children alone are responsible. It also necessitates more
detailed planning, as anyone who has had the experience of
baking a cake >vith the “help" of a small child knows well. The
kindergarten teacher adhering to this point of view helps chil-
dren to build cars and trains which have wheels that ‘'go" and
which do not constantly collapse. It should be pointed out, how-
ever, that many nonfunctioning structures created in the kinder-
garten bear greater physical resemblance to “real" trains than
does the functioning variety.

To the young child, as we have previously pointed out, the
process of creating may be more important and more satisfying
than the finished product. Yet at least one authority claims,
“Older preschool children and primary pupils desire permanence
for their buildings. They also want a fairly finished product: a
house they can get into, a wagon that can he pulled, a boat
that can be used for a time as a center for dramatic play." She
adds, “Success in terms of the product is a standard all can ap-
preciate and accept— building a chair you can sit on, a doll’s
house you can play wth, making a cowboy hat you can wear,
building with floor blocks a house that doesn't fall down %vb^
it is played in— these are achievements of which five is justly
proud." **

Perhaps there is room for both points of view. At times it
may be the process of constructing that is important rather than
the finished product. But if the child at five is to accomplish the
results listed above, he needs some help from the teacher.

Papier michi may he a difficult medium for very young chil-

n Ibid., p. 105.
i*Jbid., p. 59.

Creative Experiences in Art IIS

dren lo handle, hul it csm prove very stimulating and satisfying
to children who are capable of working svith it It is also one
of the least expensive art materials assailable for children since
it consists merely of paper toweling or newspaper tom into
strips (tearing ^ves better results than cutting) and mixed with
liquid starch. The strips should be soaked in water overnight
Drain and squeeze out all water the next day, mix the pulpy
water-soaked paper with enou^ boiled-starch solution to make
it of modeling consistency, squeeze out the excess starch, and
the children are ready to go to svork.

Kindergartners cannot make elaborate figures out of papier
mlcb4, but they are quite capable of modeling fruit or even
simple “creatures." Winding strips of paper dipped in the starch
solution around the legs and other appendages will reinforce
them. ^Vhen dry, figures made from this material can be painted
svith n-ater colors or oil paints. The teacher should be cautioned
not to permit children to attempt difficult things in this medium,
or she sriU be faced ^vith the problem of doing all the “creating
herself. If papier micb^ is too difficult for the children to man-
age, it is best to try an easier medium of expression.

This last statement applies also to much of the se>ving or
wea\‘ing that is done in kindergartens. A fe%v children may be
sufficiently mature to manage these two crafts, but most kinder-
gartners have neither the eye-hand coordination nor the patience
necessary for weaving and sewing. Immediately after Christmas
there often appears in the {dodergarten a rash of various kinds
of sesving materials which have been given to little girls as
gifts. Very little that is productive results from such “sewing
sets"— and very little that is enjoyable, either. Sesving and weav-
ing are not for the majority of kindergarten-age children; they
can express themselves much more easily and with much more
pleasure in other media.

Most children delight in making puppets. Complicated
stringed marionettes are much too difficult for young children
to make or to manipulate, but even kindergartners can create

114 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

simple hand puppets of stuffed paper bags or sto^Jdngs, adding
appendages for arms, and paintmg faces on them. They can
even add hair and dress the puppets up to some extent.

The very simplest kind of puppet is the stick puppet, which
is nothing more than a picture of a person or animal, cut from
a magazine or drawn by the child, and attached to a tongue de->
pressor, manicuring tool, or other stick. Stick puppets are easily
managed by the child and are as satisfactory for tUs purposes as
the more elaborate puppets and marionettes.

The kindergarten child as a rule is not very critical of his
own performances and so is not hesitant to express himself in
dramatic play. But there may be some children who need to
liide behind a puppet face In order to experience the fun of
puppetry without self-coosdousncss. Like dramatic play in gen-
eral, play ^vith puppets gives the fearful or troubled child an
opportunity to express and rdease hJs apprehensions and ten-
sions. It can also be of great value in developing children’s
ability to handle language.

Because the four- or five-year-old child has not mahired
sufficiently to use the smaller muscles, all art work in the
kindergarten should be of the type that encourages the child
to use large sweeping strokes. Paper for crayoning should be
large to discourage the tight and inhibited expression char-
acteristic of 50 many children. The choice of what materials to
use and when to introduce them should be based oii observah'oo
and understanding of the needs of the children. There are
limitations peculiar to each of the media, and the teacher’s ex-
perience with them >vill help her to determine how and when
she introduces them to children. Different materials mean dif-
ferent things to individual diildren, and this the teacher should
recognize and accept. Most childrea find delight in using finger
paints or day, for example, but some children (most often
girls) come into the kindergarten unable to thoroughly enjoy
these materiak, usually because their mothers have overem-
phasized the need to stay dean. Such children may remain on

Creative Experiences in Art 115

the fringe of the activities for quite some time before they can
bring themselves to work vridi these materials. Teachers need
to assure these children that their clothing will be protected
and that they will not be punished for acddents. Such assurance
may help them to overcome their initial fears and enable them
to work with clay and finger paints. The greater the variety
of materials the teacher oSers, die more likely it is that each
child will find a medium throu^ which he can express him-
self readily and enjoyably.

Toking Care of Clothes and Equipment

A necessary part of work with paint and clay is the pro-
tection of clothing. Children should not engage in such activi-
ties as finger painting or easel jiainting without wearing an
apron, smock, or some other covering. A discarded man’s shirt,
buttoned down the back and xvith the sleeves cut short, affords
very adequate protection (or messy work. Teaching children the
importaoce of protecting their clothing is not only a valuable
lesson in the care o! property but a contribution to better home-
school relationships; few parents feel kindly toward the teacher
who permits their child to get paint spots on his clothing.
Many a kindergarten teacher has jeopardized good relationships
with parents by her lack of foresight conceming *hi> problem.

Equally important is the care of school property. The teacher
should see that there is an adequate supply of newspapers to
protect table tops or other flat suttees on which children are
•working. Equipment and materiab should he stored in places
that can be reached by a four- or five-year-old. Not all children
come to school with the same standards of order, but all ciil-
dren can at least be^ to appreciate an orderly room and the
need for returning things to their proper places. From the point
of •view of safety alone it is important that children be taught
to pick up things when they are finished ^v^th their work or
play. Care of materials is a co-operative enterprise in which

116 Teaching the Eindei^iten Child

Kliulergarluers ihouUI hat^r Ihe opi>orluniUj lo cx/irrsi ihcimrhfa «tt a
variety pf mciiia. MiMt chtUhen enioy manipnhlinR chy If the hnhhed
pTuduci ii a (t'Ofl of art. so much the iKttcr' r.a\cl jwmfmg it alto a
jiofudar aclicltu- .Vo special eiiiiipnunt h ncicsta^, father's dituirded
shirt protecit ciothei at effectively «» a chdd'sizcd smock or apron,
and an iiji-eiidcd chair can xcrcc m an ratrl /\n ocerfattidiniit child
iiuiij not enjoy fingcr'painflnii—for reasons readilu apparent in the
picture hcloii,. lint matt other children. pmvidcJ that their ilothmg is
iccU protected, approach the activity iviih delight

(III imiioriant fiarl in llic hies of kmdcrRiirlners. They
enfoy finrticIlKJtln;: in $inh "formuT’ odniUcs os the rhyihtn haiiil
shotin nlx’tt'. anti they also cnioij experimenting liilunuallij with many
(llffcri'iit sniircci of music, amonti them small instruments of the sort
shoivti helotc. The modern /liii(/ergnrfi'N i>roiUti‘s nitiNy nppnrdoi/ticv
for cliihlren la learn to listen to iwwiir as ncll as to create it /\
filiarwgraii/i li enenlral cijutiiineiit. for cA/Wmi weffi to hie oiwrafing
the inorAitie almost as much as hstemnc to the music it iiroiliiccs

Ktndergarlners arc not forrnaihj iausht to read, hut they have many
ctpcrlences tchich help to prepare them for the first-grade reading
program. Listening to the teacher read a story a highly pleasurable
ecftfrieRce— I)(it the childrerx in the picture aCove are aJso looAfns
hricard to the day tchen they can read stories for themsekes. “Story
iias tougiit them to rcjjwcl lf>c xcoild of beoJa. \^'Drkins u;it?i
pussies builds reading readiness In another uaij; it helps children team
to perceitc likenesses and di$erences in shapes and tmproies eye-hand
coordinalion~hoth prereeiuisilcs to reading-

"S/ion -an</-fcW time" can /ic/|» children leom to exfireis themsehes to
others. The child in the picture abote h lining the flannel board to
illustrate the story the teacher h telling, sounding each uord as she
putt Its symbol on the board. The children arc ihus learning to attoelate
teordt with familiar obiecis and so to extend their tociibularies. Bccaw-e
the eMd in the picture Mote it somewhat shy, her teacher has
encouraged her to bring a faiorUc toy to f/att, fa give her both
confideKca and sonieffirng to to!!: about.

the teacher plays an important role but does not do all ‘the
%votk. Learning to assume this responsibility is an important
aspect of a child's education, bnt the teacher of young children
realizes that they need much encouragement if they axe to
stick to the Job and therefore takes great pains to commend a
job well done.

Sometimes tha ingenuity of even the most resourceful teacher
is heavily talced to find space for storage of art materials and the
products of children's creative efforts. Ideally, there should
bo locker or cupboard space for every child, but many kinder-
gartens lack these facilities. Cabinets of a sort can be made
from orange crates. They provide at least makeshift storage
space which helps to keep the kindergarten room more orderly
than it ^vou]d be othenvise. Finger painbogs and other pictures
done on a wet surface are especially difficult to care for. A
stout string stretched across tlie room above the heads of the
children provides a line frona which these paintings can be hung
up to dry, secured by clothespins. Fortunately, most of the
creative accomplishments of children are finished in the course
of one day, and not all children wish to preserve every product.
The problem can be lessened somewhat by having the diildren
take some things home or, in the case of plasticene, by returning
the material to the jar.

Problems far Discussion

1 , Mrs. Powell is distuibed about some of the paintings that her
kindergartnen produce. “Their houses," says she, "don't look like
houses. And today John painted a blue horse! \Vho ever heard of
a blue horse?” How would you reassure Mrs. Powell?
a. In her kindergarten Mrs. Perkins has often given Tessons” in
art. These lessons, she says, help children leam to take directions
and therefore are valuable experiences. Do you agree svith Mrs.
Perkins? Explain your answer.

3 . Wiat is the meaiung of the statenaent, “Growth fostered by crea-
tive expression is more important than any end product"? Is this

Creative Experiences in Art 117

equally tme for kindergattoeiS and oUer children? For kinder*
gartners and adults?

4. The kindergarten teacher in sAooI A says she thinks it necessary
to show children how to draw cer^rin fliings— a house, for example
—because there is no need for dukhen to learn to iaw ini»r-
rectly," as she feels most four- and five-year-olds do. The kinder-
garten teacher in school B disagrees. Assume that you are the
teacher in school B. How would you support your position?

5. What kind of sewing might be done in the kindergarten by more
mature children?

6. Discuss the relation of experience to the creative arts.

7. If you had a child in your kindergarten who was afraid to finger
paint for fear of getting dirty, how would you go about solving
the problem? Would you talk to the mother first or to the child?
Why? What would be your next step?

Suggested Additional Seadictg

Alsdtuler. K. H.. and Hattwick, L. A., "Easel Painting as an Index of
Personality in Preschool Children." Amertcon Journal of Orth^
psychiatry, 1943, XIII, 616-26.

Anastasi, A., and Foley, J., "An Analysis of Spontaneous Dratviogs
by Chddiea in Different Cultures." Journal of Applied Psychology,
1936, XX, 689-726.

Art for Children's Crowing. Washington, D. C., Association for Child-
hood Education International, 1955.

Caidozo, Peter, A Wonderful World for Children. New York, Bantam
Books, loc., 1956.

Erdt, Margaret H., Teaching Art in the Elementary School. New
York, Binebart & Company, loc., 1954.

Foster, Nan, “Children and Creative Activities.” Bulletin of the Insti-
tute of Child Studies. Toronto. 1954. XVI, 4, 10-13.

Coodenoogh, F. L., and Hanis, D. B., *^tudies in the Psyriology of
Children’s Drawings, II, 1928*1949.” Psychological Bulletin, 1950,
XL\TI. 369-433-

Johnson. June, Home Play for the PrcKhool Child. New York, Harper
& Brothers, 1957.

Lowenfeld, Viktor, Creative and Mental Growth. New York, The
Maanillaa Co., 1937.

118 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

Lowenfeld, Viktor, Your Child and Ilts Art; A Guide for Tarcnts. New
York, The Macmillan Co., 1934.

O'Brien, Mary A., et al, “Developing Creativity in Children’s Use cf
Imagination: Theoretical Statement." Union College Studies in
Character Research, 1953, 1, 3, i7-*6.

Schultz, Iloiold A., and Shores, J. Harlan, Art in the RlemeniaTy
School. Unicersily of JHinolj fiiineiin, Urhana, 111., College of Edu-
cation, 1948.

Shaw, Ruth F,, Finger Pointing; A Perfect liedium for Self-Expres-
sion. Boston, Little, 6 c Co., 1934.

Creative Ezperiences in Art 119

8 . Creative Experiences in Music
and Dramatic Play

Just as virtually all young children seek to express themselves
ia graphic form, so also they respond to sounds and rhythm. The
impulse to express oneself in some form of music seems to be
as old as the human species itself. Of all the arts, it is the first
v/hlch can be enjoyed; it is a source of pleasxure even in infancy.
Some authorities go so far as to say that every normal child
has a “natural interest in rhythm and musical tone."* Music
affords so much joy to the young that it should be a vital part
of their life.

Children, of course, differ in musical talent H. G. Seashore,*
one of the best-kno^vn investigators of musical talent, says, "musi-
cal performance, like all other acts ol skill involving unusually
high capacity, is limited by certain inherent and inherited motor
capacities." Other capacities basic to musical ability such as
senses of pitch, of time, and of intensity hs feels are largely in-
born and function from early childhood: “After a comparatively
early age they do not vary with intelligence, with training or
with age except in so far as the e^bition of these capacities is
limited by the child's inaWlity to understand or apply himself."

* R. Squires, Introduction to Music Education, New York, Ronald, 1952,
p. 47.

* Quoted in Marian Breckenndge and E. Lee Vincent, CJilZd Development,
Philadelphia, Saunders, 1943, p. 363.

120

Nevertheless, experiences in music should be avaflable to
all diildren, not merely to the hi^y talented /e^v. All children
can learn to value and to enjoy music, whether or not they have
especial aptitude for it. It is the business of the school, and
particularly of the kindergarten, to oiler opportunities for chil-
dren to participate in as many musical experiences as possible
and to make available as many sources of music as possible-
musical clocks, a phonograph, chimes and bells of all kinds, a
canary, and a music box as wcU as conventional musical instru-
ments. Children need to experiment with sounds— the sound of
wood striking against wood or metal against metal, tiie sounds
made by a plucked violin string or by a flute, and the sounds
made by the human voice. One of the most effective ways
of making children aware of music is to call their attention to
the differences in tonal qualities among these various sources of
sound. The modem child is constantly exposed to music-on the
radio, on television, on records, and in special concert per-
formances of music for cMdreo. Ihe school can take advantage
of the child's many experiences with music outside the classroom
to make the music period one of the most enjoyable and proflt-
able of the day.

This does not mean that musical experiences should be re-
stricted to a single period of the day's schedule. Young children
sing intermittently all day Jong. They sing about their play, wash-
ing their hands, going to bed, getting dressed-in fact, about
everything they do. It seems as natiual for children to tell about
what they are doing by singing as in any other way. But special
attention should be given to music as part of the school program
for young children. Music activities can give children emotional
release as well as much joy. The eqierience of expressing their
feelings through singing or rhythmic activity, added to the
pleasure of listening to music, can contribute greatly to emotional
stability and social well-bdng.*

* Teacher's Guide to Education in Emit/ Childhood, Saeramenfo, CaU,
State Department of Education. igs6.

Creative Experiences bi Marie and Dramatic Play 121

Teaching Singing Skills and Songs

Perfection of technique Is not the aim in the kindergarten
—in music any more than in art or in any other area. It is
far more important to give the child pleasure through musical
expression than to insist on correct performance. Yet, unless
he is reasonably well satisfied with Us performance, the child
derives little enjoyment from the activity. The teacher, therefore,
tries to help children who are lacking somewhat in the ability to
inflect their voices or who have difficulty in matching tones— hut
she does so unobtrusively.

Although children diEer in the quality of their singing,
Sheehy * and other authorities claim that there may be no such
thing as a monotone. Music should be for all children; every
child, regardless of his ability or inability to carry a tunc, should
be encouraged to sing. Often in play a child raises his voice; the
teacher can use such occasions to help him leam to bear dif-
ferences in pitch. If the child has been calling to another child,
the teacher may repeat what he has said, using the same pitch,
and then ask him to say it again with her. If the child appears
to enjoy rfiis *game" she can encourage him to match loNver
or higher tones. After a few experiences of this nature, even an
apparent monotone should be able to sing simple songs.

Although there should be little emphasis in the kindergarten
on singing techniques, all songs should be accurately and clearly
presented by the teacher. The teacher who has a light, pleasant
singing voice and who knows many short, simple songs has a
valuable asset. Children like to have the teacher sing to them,
and it is easier and more enp^able for them to leam a new song
by matching their voices to another voice than by matching
voices to a piano or other instrument. If the kindergarten teacher
can sing rvitbout too much hdp from the piano she should do
so. If she feels the need of die piano to support her voice, she
4 Emma D. Steehy, TAere’* Music <n ChOdten, New York, Holt, 1946, p. 65.

122 Teaching the Kinder^rten Child

should play only ihe melody, not the harmony, until children
tnow the song wlL

Songi arc intended to be sung, not talic?d about; too much
preliminary discussion detracts from the children's enjoyment
rather tlian enhancing it TIjc teacher slmuld introduce the song
with only a fesv words, perlisps gis'ing the name of it and telling
briefly what it is elraut Tlien she should sing the song for the
children from beginning to end. hfany children will join in even
before the>’ fias'c heard the song In Its entirety. After they Iiave
participated for a little svblle, they ssfll l>e more wjUIng to listen
to the teacher sing the song scs'eral times so that they can Icam
it Tlio teacher will rarely lias-e to sing completely by herself; a
few difldrcn, wlio leam more qiifcLly tiian (be others, will almost
always be eager to ting with her.

Once the children are familiar with the melody, it may be
vdse for the teacher to speak some of the words to make sure that
(he cltildrcn ftas’C heard (hem distinctly and understand (hem.
(We can all cite cliildreo's garbled versions of familiar songs;
for eaample, the clilld’s version of "Nearer, My Goil, to Thee"—
"Nero, My Dog, Has Fleas,") At times (he group may even need
to discuss some of U)o words. If srry much discussion is needed,
however, the teacher may be attempting to teacli children con*
ceptj beyond their understanding.

Wlien a new song ts added to the doss repertoire, it should
be sung by tlie children almost daily for $(r\Tral days. Thereafter
it sliould be repeated from time to time so that the group docs
not forget it. Sometimes bringing out a familiar song can become
an occasion. A rainy day is an opportune time to review a "rain
song" tliat children have enjoyed particularly or to Icani a
new one. If a child brings a pet to school, the group might sing
a familiar song about bunnies or dogs or cats.

Cliildren also create their o\%ti music, with their voices and
on instnimcnls-the piano, difmea, bells, even tuned water
glasses, Wliile they are worllng or playing, they may sing in
rhythm to what they are doing. The kindergarten teacher should

Creative Experiences fn Music and Dramatic Play 123

have sufficient background in music to be able to capture on
paper some of the tunes created by duldren. Dunng the "sliaring
time," individual children who have created songs might be en-
couraged to sing them to the rest of the group or even to teadi
them to the odier children. Sometimes diildren who have had
a common experience may want to create a song about it as a
group. After a train trip, for example, the group may learn some
songs about trains and then, as a result, show interest in creating
a song themselves about their train experience. The children
discuss what they wish to say in the son^ the teacher writes dosvn
the ideas, and then individual rdiildren create “tunes” for the
ideas suggested.

Selecting Music for the Kindergarten

In choosing songs to teadi to children, the teacher should
consider the music as well as the words. Many teachers tend
to select songs mainly on (he basis of the x’erse, xvith little regard
for the quality of the music. Yet ^Idren’s response to music
is primarily a rhythmic one. To many children, melody Is the
most appealing aspect of a song, and they find their greatest
pleasure in singing or humming the tone. To other— perhaps most
— diildren, the rhydim of the music constitutes its chief appeal,
and their greatest pleasure h'es in responding to music throu^
bodily movement or playing rhythm instruments. If the only ap-
peal of a song is ite content, Oiere b little justification for indud-
ing it in the kindergarten repertoire, for there are many songs ap-
propriate to young children which combine liltiiig melody and
conta^ous rhythm xvith verses that diildren like.

Teachers do not need to restrict their choice to the song
books bsued specifically for diildrea. The folk songs that are
part of OUT musical heritage have survived through the years be-
cause they appeal to music lovers of every age and level of musi-
cal sophistication. Mozart, Sdiuber^ and other well-known classi-
cal composers wrote many rhapning and simple songs for chil-

124 Teaching tie Kindergarten Child

dren. 1/ children are introduced to diese songs at aa early age, and
if they bear the songs repealed ofbm enough, they can learn to
love “good” music as well as-^nd, we hope, more than— the taste-
less tunes that so often make up the whole of the londergaitner’s
miisical diet. They can even leam to respond to music without
words, provided that it has an attractive melody and a strongly
accented rhythm; after they had heard her play a simplified
version of the “Triumphal March" from Aida a number of times,
the author found that her kindergartners requested it over and
over again. Musical experiences of this sort not only teach chil-
dren to appreciate fine music and so help to enrich their whole
lives but also help them to team something of the vocabulary
of music.

In choosing songs far chiidren to sing, the teacher should
also bear in mind the range of childrens voices. Research has
demonstrated that the “high, sweet voice” which has so often
been attributed to cliildren is an exaggeration as far as most chil-
dren are concerned. Perham * found that the average range of
young children's voices is from middle C to high C or D. Jersild
and Bienstock * also found that although children's voices ore
often rather high-pitched in spontaneous play, they sing more
successfully if their songs are pitched at a somewhat lower
range than the one in which most children's songs are written.

There are also certain requirements of content to be met
in selecting songs for young cHildreu. First, the song must re-
flect childrens real interests and experiences. Second, it must
be simple, expressing a single idea or mood. And third, it should
he fairly short. Educators no longer believe that songs for young
children should be “full of rosebud babies and personified sea-
sons.” Nor should they he full of plot which kindergartners find
difficult to follow.

« Beatrice Perham, Muric in the New Sdtoot, Chicago. Neil A. Kjos Music
Co., 1937, p. 61.

* Arthur T. JersiH and S. F. Bienstock, “A Study or the Development 0/
Children’* Ability to Sing." Journal Edaeailonel Psi/chohgy, October
1934. PP. 481-503'

Creative Experiences la Music and Dramatfe Play 125

This does not mean that diildren should sing only songs
which are related to their own esperiences. In any group of
kindergarten children there will be some who, because of home
background or other factors, are above the level of most of the
group both in appredation for good music and in ability to sing.
These chUdren can share their music with the other kinder-
gartners and thus Hnd an added source of satisfaction.

Although, as we have said, songs for kindergartners should be
short, ttiere appears to be litde justification for fiie contention of
some kindergarten teachers that young children are capable of
learning only one-sentence songs. Even many "fours’' can leam
relatively long songs if interest in them is high and the words
are not too difficult for them to understand. The particular group
is, in the last analysis, the "baromder” of what can be done.

Khythmie Activities

Children like music of all kinds but seem to enjoy espe-
cially music to which they can respond with thelf whole being.
There may. in fact, be no such thing as passive listening to music
in the kindergarten.

Strang ^ reports that children develop a sense of rhythm be-
tween the ages of tu’o and five. During this time, they leam to
keep time to music, to beat in time with their hands, to walk
to music, and, after the age of four, to sidp to music. Young
cliildren appear to be able to follow fast tempos better than slow
ones. Children extend and refine their abilities in rhythmic ex-
pression as they gain experience and added maturity, progressing
from the stage of free bodily movements to die more complKt
patterns of the dance— or from using simple percussion instru-
ments to accompany themselves to using them to beat out com-
plicated patterns.

» Ruth Strang, An Jntrodvction to Ch{U Studi/, New Yorl^ Macaullaii, 1951,
T>- '57.

120 Teaching the Kindei^iten Clhild

BodO/ movements and ibythmlc interpretations are natural
accompaniments to all musical activities. Children should be
free to interpret the music they hear, but the child rather than
the music should determine the response. The impulse to respond
rhythmically originates in the child, not in the music. There is
no such thing as “airplane music" or “elephant music.” Certain
rhytlims may suggest certain responses, but there is little to justify
ha\ing the whole group do the same thing at tlie same time in
response to any given musical selection. In fact, Sheehy* has
suggested that in the beginning the teacher should make the
music keep time with the children rather than have the children
keep time with the music. For example, the teacher might
improvise simple piano accompaniments for rhythmic patterns
created by the children. She might “invent" a song or chant to
go ^v^lh their activity, select and play appropriate recorded music,
or use percussion instruments, such as drums, tone blocks, or
coconut shells, to beat out the rhythm established by the chil*
dren themselves. Tlie music should strengthen and clarify the
child's own feelings of rhythm; the teacher should help him to
express in more controlled and coordinated fashion his own
rhytlimfc patterns. The Impulse to dance-to move the body
rhythmically to music-is inherent In the child; the teacher need
only draw it out by giving him security and freedom to express
himself.

In music as in the other arts, the attitude of the teacher is
of great importance. Some children End it difficult to release
themselves completely in the dance; others are able to translate
their feelings into rhythmic movement with great ease and free-
dom. The kindergarten teacher who understands children will
accord each child's own expression in dandng the same respect
she gives his paintings and draxvings, no matter how crude. A
child should nex'er be forced to participate in dance activities.

If he does choose to join the group, he should be free to leave
• Sheehy, op. p. 30.

Creative Experiences in Music and Dramatic Play 127

it when he \vishes to do so. Here also there are great indi^idtial
differences. Some children guicl^ lose interest in dancing; others
are able to maintain thdr interest in this rhythmic movement
of their bodies in accompaniment to music for rather long periods
of time.

Rhythmic expression may be an outgrosv’th of virtually any
experience. Childreo may be stimulated by a study trip, dramatic
play, a story, a picture boot, a film, or music. A child's first re-
sponse through rhyttimie bodily movement may seem limited
and incomplete. But “when bis tentative beginnings are recog-
nized, valued, and encouraged by the teacher, the child becomes
more confident in his efforts to develop rh^ibrnic movements. *

Dancing for the young child is not a matter of executing
steps "taught*’ by the tea<d»er. It is, rather, the joyous, spontaneous
response of the child’s whole body to music. In an atmosphere
o! freedom the child learns to dance freely and easily; he finds
ns oppoitmdty for emotional release in this sot ionn as in
the othen. And In addition be is developing bodily skill and
grace in body carriage.

Listening to Music

In the Idndcrgarten every attempt should be made to help
(iildren learn to listen. Not every idiild, of course, will grow
up to be a great singer, instrumentalist, or dancer, but learning
to appreciate music will enrich the lives of all children. For
developing this appreciation, the phonograph is invaluable. The
period between four and six, according to Eisenberg and Krasne,’®
is the "record age." Children of this age not only like to listen
to songs on records but they also like to participate, by operating
the phonograph, by singing along \vith the record, by accom-

* TeocJier’* Guide to Education in Earfy ChileDtopd, op. cif., p. 375.

** Philip Eisenberg and HecLy Eiasne, Guide to Chddrefi'M Records, New
■Sorb, Crown, 1948.

12s Teaching the liander^tten Child

pan>lng the song with rViythmlc iastrumcnts, or by inleipreting
the "mood" in dance.

Some recordings arc well suited to rhytlmiic activities and
still others to dancing or simple pantomime. Cliildren may \vant
to accompany some records with simple percussion Instruments.
The pbonograpli, as an estension of the teachers ahility to per*
form and as a means for teaching children how to listen, can
play on important part in the daily music program of the kinder*
garten.

Playinp instruments

Just os dijldrcn need to bear music; to dance, lo enjoy all
manner of rhythmic actinUcs accompanied by music, so also
they need to m.ikc music, with instruments as well as with their
own TOiccs. They may play instruments informally, ns part of
their individual music activities, or they may %vish to make music
togelljct by forming a rhytlun band. The rhythm band offers
not only musical experience but social v'alucs os well, for in a
rhythm b.ind children learn to cooperate; to subordinate their
own desires and impulses to the Interest of the groiip. Although
there are few young Mozarts among kindergartners, the kin-
dergarten tcaclier should be aware that even at this ago there
is a difference betNveen music and noise. If wlat comts out of
the rhythm b.ind is only noise, perhaps the band is best omitted
from the kindergarten program.

It may bo advisable to set aside a corner of the kindergarten
in wliidi children can experiment with instruments. Such a
place should be removed some^vhat from noisy activities such as
Nvoodworking, so that the children are not distracted, and so that
they can hear wliat they are playing. There ought to be frequent
opportunity for young childim to experimeiit with instruments
even before they are able to read music. The child speaks long
before he can read, and J»e often creates lovely music long before
he is able to distinguish notes in written form. Children should

Creative Experiences in Muse and Dramatic Play 129

be discouraged from regarding musical instruments merely as
toys to be played with. They should be respected as musical
instruments and should not be used roughly.

HomemcKie Instruments

If die kindergarten cannot afford to purchase mstruments,
teacher and children together can make a number of satisfactory
substitutes from waste materials. Toy instruments are almost
useless, for they are incapable of producing more than noise
and \viU not withstand lundling by many children.

Drums are perhaps the easiest musical instruments to make.
Kegs, cheese boxes, wooden mixing bowls, oatmeal boxes, large
cans, or even coconut shells can be used for the body of the
drum. The drum heads can be made from any animal skin of
sufficient strength, from cloth pulled tightly and shellacked, or
from rubber inner tubes. If sldo or doth is used, it should be
wet before it is fastened to ensure a tighter drum head. Tacks
should be used to fasten the head to the body of the drum if
possible. If the drum has a cardboard or metal body, strong
cord can be tied around the head to secure it or heads on the
top and bottom can be laced together. A small spool padded
with cloth and fastened to the end of a stick makes an effident
drum stick. Children can decorate the drums to suit their fancy.

Many other simple percussion instruments can be made from
various inexpensive or waste materials. A series of bottles filled
to varying levels withwatei can make a tuned scale, (The higher
the water level, the higher the pitch.) A long-ned:ed bottle is
generally most satisfactory, but water glasses or other containers
can be used in similar manner. The bottles should be suspended
by a string so that they hang straight, with the bottoms on an
even level. A string placed along ttie bottoms svill prevent bottles
from swinging too freely. If dear glass is used, the children may
svish to put a few drops of color into the water.

Flower pots of various sizes susiJended from a bar, bottom

130 Teaching the Kinder^itoa Child

side tip, will also produce tones of different pitch. The hole in
the bottorn of the flower pot will accommodate the suspending
string to which a small slide slightly longer than the diameter
of the hole is tied.

Gourds make effective maracas. Soak the gourd, scrub it
with steel wool, and dry it before using. Bemove the seeds and
put rice, small stones, or large seeds inside the gourd; then cover
the hole with adhesive tape. Shaken can be made horn small
boxes containing seeds or pebbles with a stick put through the
bo-T for a handle. Both gourds and bores can be painted by
the children to add interest.

Tambourines can be made by attaching bells to shellacked
paper plates, or, for a sharper lone, by fastening small bells or
poji-bottle caps to a tin lid.

A silver fork suspended on a string substitutes for a triangle
and pan covers or old copper or brass bowls make usable cymbab.

Old chair rungs or discarded brush or broom handles can be
used as rhythm sticks. Sand blocks can be made simply by cover*
ing one side of a block with sandpaper and attaching a spool
for a handle.

Dramatic Play

Dramatic and imaginative play is an integral part of the
child’s free-play activities. But it is abo closely allied to the
creative arts.

Dramaticplay offers the child an opportunity for free expres-
sion, enabling him to project himself into a role far removed
from the everyday life of his circumscribed world. On one occa-
sion, the child may be Superman; on anodier, a father or mother;
on another, the engineer on a train. VVIien he assumes such a role,
the child is not pretending: he U an engineerl In thus becoming
another character, he learns about his environment and clarifies
concepts about how things in his world are related to him. Every
time the child dramatizes life around him he is learning some-

Crcalive Experiences in &Iusic and Dramatic Play 231

thing about it, if only through imitab'on. Tlie child identifies
himself with bis immediate w-orld; he becomes what he pretends
to be and be lives the role he has assumed.

Playing through his experiences not only helps the diild to
understand them but may rev'cal to the teacher some of the child’s
misconceptions and problems. Obser\‘3tion of children as they
assume the roles of family members will give the perceptive adult
much insight into the ci^ds feelings about bis own father and
mother. Through such observations, for example, the teacher may
discxjver bow children are disciplined at borne, for children often
re^nac^ in their play the disciplinary measures practiced by their
parents. The teacher may also see mirrored in the child's dramatic
play his fears, fantasies, and conflicts. Playing out one's fears
somehow males them less fearful, and sometimes the child is
able to release emotional tension through dramatic play.

Sometimes the dramatic play is notldng more than a short,
spontaneous expression. At other times it may be a quite complex
activity in which children asrign themselves roles and xnahe up
dialogue as the play progresses. Dramatic play may be the
outgrowth of common experiences or of stories read to die group.
Imaginative play may taVe place during any part of the day, but
informal pericxis lend themselves to it more than periods when
children are engaged in organized activity.

Imaginatix'S play can be encouraged by providing a free
environment in which the child has ready acxess tcj a few proper-
ties, such as dolls, large boxes, a playhouse comer, large blocks,
and perhaps a simple collection of costumes or discarded adult
clothing in which he can dress up. The Itindergaiten child re-
quires little equipment; what he lacks in material he supplies
through his imagination. More important than properties are
experiences on which the child can base his imaginative play.
His everyday experiences are tiie raw material horn whiedx he
gamers material to build; the richer his experiences are, the
greater will be the store of ideas firom which he can draw. The
child who has many etperieoces with the real world will be able

132 Teaching the Kiodeigarten CMd

to build a richer imaginative life. There are probably few human
spectacles that come to the senses of the young child which
we do not find him imitating in his play.

Dramatic play should be the outgrowth of the child’s actiW-
ties and the expression of his reactions to them; it should not be
considered a show. The efforts of young children in this direction
should not be laughed at— dramatization is serious business to
them and should be so respected by adults. Kindergarten children
should not be invited to put on a formal program or exhibition
of dramatic playj rather, they should be given opportunity for
such dramatization within their own group. If, however, they feel
that they would like to show the rest of the school or their parents
how they play, small audiences may be invited to see wbat the
kindergartncrs are doing. TJiey should not be invited to see a
show.

Techniques In the Creative Arts: Summary

In the entire program of creative activities for the young
child, technique and product are secondary to the child's pleasure
and satisfaction in creating. The important thing is for children
to have ideas to express creatively and the time and facilities to
do so. When they themselves feel the need for new techniques
and skills in order to achieve a particular goal of their own
choosing, they svill express their own readiness, and the new
learning will be acquired most efficiently. This is quite different
from the philosophy of teaching skills and teclmiqaes to all
children at the same time in the vague hope that children will
retain the information for future use when the need arises. In
those very fields which draw on the greatest creativity— art, music,
and dramatization— we have in the past emphasized mastery of
technique as a prerequisite to creative work. This would seem
to reverse the learning process and defeat the very aims of
expression in the creative arts. Technique should be a means
to an end, not an end in itself.

Creative Experiences in Music and Dramatic Flay 133

Problems for Discussion

1. Why is it important for children to learn to listen?

2. In some communities, because of certain convictions of adults,
children are not permitted to dance. How would you handle a
situation of this land in youi Itindergarten?

3. Observe two kindergarten groups to see how much music comes
into their %vork or play. Can you determine whether the attitude
of the teacher has any bearing on the amount of spontaneous sing-
ing diildren do?

4. Assume that you are teaching in a kindergarten in which the
children appear to be on the whole ralher “repressed.” ^Vhat kind
of muric program would help “release" such children?

5. Why are experiences of greater importantse than properties in the
dramatic play of kindergarten children? Is this true of adults?

my?

6. Docs the maturation process itself have some effect on the ap-
parent un\vl]llngne3s of older childieo to dramatize or dance ^vith
the spontaneity of kindergarten cblldres? Explain.

Suggested Additional Reading

Carabo-Cone, M. C., and Royt, 6., Hote to Help Children Leant ilusiCt
New York, Harper & Brotb^ igSS*

Children and Music. Bulletin. Washington. D. C., Association for
Childhood Education Intemational, 194S.

Durland, Frances D., Creative Dramatics for Children. Yellow Springs,
O., Antiodi Press, 1952.

Krone, Beatrice F., Music in the New School. Chicago, Neil A, Kjos
hlusic Co., X941.

LaSalle, Dorothy, Rh^hms and Dances for Elementary Schools. New
York, A. S. Bames & Co., i95x.

Mason, B., Drums, Tom-Toms and Raffles. New York, A. S. Bames &
Co., 1938.

Murray, Ruth Lovell, Dance in Elementary Education: A Program
for Boys and Girls. New Yoik, Harper A Brothers, 1953.

Wmsic for Children tcUh Special Needs. Handbook, Sacramento, Calif.,
Music Piofesrional Coimmttee, Cahfonua School Supervisors' Asso-
ciation, Southern Section, X953-1954.

134 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

Mwfc for Childrens Licfri?. Washington, D. C., Association for Child-
hood Education Internationa}, 1955.

Nye, 11 . E., and Bergetbon, B., Basic Music for Classroom Teachers.
Ne\v York, Prentice-Hall, In&, 1954.

Sehon, Elizabeth, and O’Brien, Emma, Rhjfihm in the Elementary
School. New York, A. S. Bames & Co., 1951.

Staples, R., Musical Fun Book, 5 Vols.: Fun tcifh RAyffim Rufro-
menfj. Fun icith the Keyboard, Pun tcHh the Melody Bells, Fun
with Classroom Harps, and Fun with the Small Winds. Chicago,
Follett Publishing Company, 1955.

Song Books

Crowenshield, Ethel, Hew Songs and Comes. Boston, Boston Music
Co., 1931.

Hood, Marguerite V., et al.. On Wings of Song. Boston, Ginn & Com-
pany, 1945.

Hufit, Evelyn, Music Time. New York, The Vilcing Press, Inc., 1947.

Kapp, Paul, A Cal Came Fiddling. New York, Harcourt, Brace &
Company, sggy.

Kuhn, Jacquella, 33 Rhythms for Children, New York, Bregman,
Vocco and Conn. Inc., 1936.

Landeck, Beatrice, Songs to Grow On. New York, Gerald Marks Music,
Inc.. 1930.

Nordholm, Harriet, Singing and Playing. New York, Mills Music, Inc.,
IBS’"

Pitts, Lilia Belle, Kindergarten Book. Boston. Ginn Sc Company, 1931.

, et al.. Our Singing World. Boston. Ginn & Company, 1949.

Seeger, Ruth Crawford, Americon Folk Songs for Children. New
York, Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1948.

Siebold, Meta, Happy Songs for Happy Children. New York, C.
Schirmer, Inc., ipaS.

Creative Experiences in Music and Dramatic Flay 135

9 . Experiences in Language

From a completely Doosoda! being, unable to utter or to under-
stand a single word, the child becomes in only four years a highly
sodalized individual, «ith some 1,500 words, according to con-
ser\’ative estimates, in his speaking \'ocabulaiy. By the age of
six, the “average" child uses approtimately a, 500 words in speak-
ing and can undentand perhaps ten times as many. And this
represents only a small fraction of the words be will ultimately
know.'

For all his vocabulary, however, tie kindergarten child is
only beginning to develop the art of conversation. At the age of
five, speech is still egocentric; the language of the child at this age
contains more references to "I," “me." and “mine" than to “you"
and “j'ouis," or “we” and “ours." The young child sees the world
as revolving around himself. Averill suggests that the child's lack
of facility in conversation may stem from the fact that “he com-
prehends only dimly as yet either the rights and privileges, or
the feelings and >’alues of other people. Experience is vivid for
him only as it impinges upon lumself. . , . The capacity to think
in terms of the other fellow, or abstractly in terms of what is
equitable or right, e>-olves slowly; indeed, by the time of school

1 See, inter alia, M. K. Smith, “Meamrement of the Size of General English
Vocabulary Ihrough the Elenteslaiy Grades and High School," Genetic
Pst/dwlogy Monogroph, *941, XXIV.

136

these older hvins abo lagged behind singletons in language
development By the age of nine and a half, twins from the upper
socioeconomic groups had virtually overcome their handicap.
However, those from the lower occupational groups were still
inferior in language development*

How much of this lag in language development among chil-
dren of multiple birth b due to hereditary or congenital factors
is not known. Certainly much of it can be traced to environmental
factors. Because t\\ins provide each other with adequate com-
panionship, they tend not to seek other playmates in their age
group and therefore receive less stimulation from the outside than
singletons and only children. They are able to communicate with
each other— often in fewer words than would be necessary to
express themseh’es to others— and so have relatively little incen-
tive to communicate with others.*

Intelligence abo seems to be an important factor in develop-
ing language ability. Not only does the less intelligent child tend
to hav'e a smaller s’ocabulaiy than other children, but his sentence
structure may be inferior. Lagging behi^ other children, he may
lack the incentive to improve; the reason he b not interested in
language may be that he cannot manage it well

The causal aspect of the relationship between language abil-
ity and mental ability, however, has not been determined, since
results on the standard intelligence tests used to measure the
latter factor depend so heavily on the understanding and use of
words. The question b whether the child earns a good score on
a verhal-intelligence test because be has a good command of
language, or whether he has a good command of language be-
cause he has good intelligence. We have as yet no conclusive
answer to this question.

The kindergarten teacher must be on guard against tbe

* E. A. Davis, The Vecelopment of Ltngaistic SliHs tn Ttcfns, Singletons
with Siblings, and Only Children from Age Five to Ten Years, Institute of
CSiild Welfare Monograph Series No. 14, Minneapolis, University of Min-
nesota Press, 1937.

• Jersili op. cU., p. 416.

140 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

templation lo assume that a child who lacks facility in oral com-
munication is mentally retarded. Facility with language is (he
product of many opporhinides to hear and to use words. Chil-
dren who liave had little association with adults or who come
from forcign-speaking homes may enter the kindergarten with
very few English words at their command. These children will
need many experiences and much encouragement on the part of
the teacher before they are able to express themselves. Some of
these cliildrcn may spend the entire year in Ujb kindergarten
wthout saying more than a very few words. Some will leave at
the end of tlm year without having said even one word! This may
be true as well of children from linpiistically starved homes,
where they have Iiad little stimulation in the use of language.

Each child must start from "wliere he is' before he can pro-
ceed to the next stage in his language development. Children
who come from meager backgrounds may need to be given
special help. Most clilldren have an experiential “bank account*
from which they can draw in expressing themselves, but for some
it must be provided. Increasing the play materials and thereby
the sensory experiences of diildfcn may help to increase both
their 'vocabularies and their urge for expression.

Development of the ability to express bimself linguistically
is an essential part of the child’s gnnvth as a socialized individual.
It both rcQccts and affects Iiis understanding of all that he sees
and hears and his need and ability to communicate with others.
Thus it determines the kind of social participation open to him.
In fact, the alert teacher observes in children’s speech many indi-
cations of their sodal adjustment. With increased command of
language comes increased ability to understand and handle dif-
ficult situations demanding talking. And with this comes increased
self-confidence and independence. Obviously an asset of such
N'aluo should be encouraged. For this reason the activities of die
kindergarten are so designed that four- and five-year-olds are
pTCn many opportunities to talk, to listen, and to be heard— and
many rich and varied experiences to talk about. Language and

Experiences in Language 141

thought develop best in an atmospbere in which the child is free
to manipulate and explore things, to talk about what he experi-
ences, and to indulge in "verbal play."

Developing Correct Speech

Many children at kindergarten entrance are not yet capable
of enunciating certain sounds accurately. It has been estimated,
in fact, that stuttering occurs in approximately ten out of every
thousand children.* Among very young children, stuttering may
be merely a stage In speedi development, and therefore essen-
tially normal. The complicated lip-tongue sounds f, v, I, r, s, z,
ch, si, and j appear much later than the labials p, b, and m, which
are the first to be mastered, and ri^dien wbo are not suiBciently
mature to produce these more difficult sounds may stutter.

Sometimes the condition seems to be acquired by imitationt
one stuttering child in a class may start a mild epidemic of stut-
tering. Sometimes a child may bo shocked or alarmed into stutter-
ing. Stuttering, Strang points out, "also appears to be associated
with emotional tension and disturbance, such as fear and feelings
of inferiority, inadequacy, or Insecurity. It occurs more frequently
among mentally retarded than among normal children and is four
to five times as prevalent among boys as among girls."

Stuttering also seems to occur more frequently "when the
child is talking about somediing concerning which he has insuf-
ficient knowledge, when his vocabulary lacks the necessary words,
when the listener does not respond readily, when he is talking
in the face of competition, and when he is experiencing shame
and guilt, particularly if this be the result of disapproval of his
speaking rights or ability." “

•Strang, op. eit., p, 435.

Loe. cit.

I* Early Childhood Education, Porty-tfxth Yearbook, CKicago, Natioaal So*
ciety for the Study of Educatioii, University of Chicago l 4 ess, 1947, Ih

142 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

The child’s feeling about liis stuttering is of ma/or importance
in overcoming the condition. K he thlnbs of himself as abnonnal,
the symptoms will he accentuated. Any method that relieves his
tension about stuttering and pves him greater emotional security
may result in more effective control of speech.

Another common characteristic of the speech of young chil-
dren is lisping, baby talk, or "cute” expressions— particularly
among middle-class children. The teacher may enjoy these ex-
pressions, but she knows that it is not her business to enjoy them
at the child’s expense. Babyish speech is undesirable simply
because it is an infantile xvay of behaving, and should be dis-
carded along svith other babyish ways as the child grows older.
Kforeover, as Use Forest ’* points out, persistent baby talk may
take on the proportions of a speech defect.

At best it is a source of embarrassment to the child when he
reaches the mature age of five or six. Without being pedantic,
the trained adults in a nursery sclrocd try to teach correct enunci-
ation and pronunciation from the very start, using simple and
correct language when conversing with the children, and helping
Individuals gradually to increase their vocabularies by the addi-
tion of useful words. The competent nursery-school teacher also
restrains herself from taDcing too mueb. . . . JShe) tries to com-
bine friendliness and warmth with clarity and brevity of speech,
engaging the child in conversation only when he seeks to con-
verse, and falling in with his conversation rather than intruding
a theme of her own.

Correction of speech defects and language inadequacies
should be^ in the kindergarten, hut the child should not be
made self-conscious about his language faults. Nicety of expres-
sion should not he achieved at the expense of the child's security
or spontaneity in speaking. Many of the speech defects of four-
and five-year-olds are functional— that is, they have no organic
basis. Many are due to nothing more serious than immaturity and
will disappear in time. Children who are having diiEculty xvilh

» Use Forest, Early Years at Schott, New York, MeCraw-HJl, 1949, p. aao.

Experiences in Language 143

speech sounds can be helped throu^ the use of simple verses
or other language materials which appeal to their interests. A
poem about a whistling tea kettle can help to teach the “ch"
sound. The rhymes found in The Jingle Booh, by Alice L. Wood,“
and in Games and Jingles for Speech Development, by Sarah
Barrows and K. H. provide a painless medium for improv-
ing children's enunciation of difficult sounds.

Most four- and five-year-olds enjoy playing svith words and
sounds, and the teacher can exploit this natural tendency to
improve the child’s ability to distinguish among sounds and to
enunciate accurately ^'arious sound combinations. Young diildren
like to rhyme words. The^’ like to make up and endlessly repeat
nonsense syllables. Even at this age they invent words which
sometimes are more descriptive and expressive than those found
in the dictionary.

filxperimentiflg with sounds is a normal phase of the young
child's development and it seems to appeal to his sense of humor.
Many kindergarten teachers capitalize on the child’s natural inter-
est in words by encouraging him to make up rhymes and songs
or by calling his attention to new or interesting words in poems
and stories. The hooks in Hugh Lofting’s "Dr. DolittJe” series
have deb'ghted generations of young children, partly, at least,
because of the ridiculous names of some of the characters; Gub-
Gub, the baby pig; Too-Too, the owl; and Dab-Dab, the duck.
The poems of Laura lUcbards are not only examples of first-rate
story telling but contain many coined words that children enjoy—
“muffin-bird," "rummy-jums," “Glimmering Glog," and "Wiggle-
dywasticums.” Perhaps fe%v children can play with words with
more joyous confusion than she. Almost every child, whatever his
age, enjoys her Tlletelephony":

wNew Voik, DuUoq, 1940.

Boston, Expositioo Press, 1936.

Laura I^'chards, rirra-Lirra: Bhymet Old and N«c, Boston, Little, Brown,

1932.

144 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

Once there was an elephant
Who tried to use the tekphant—

No! No! I mean an elepbone
Who tried to use the tel^hone
(Dear mel I am not certain quite
That even now got it right).

Howe’er it was, he got his trunk
Entangled in the telephunk;

The more he tried to get it free,

Tlie louder buzzed the teJephee—

(I fear I'd better drop the song
Of elepbop and telephortgl).

The teacher can also give the child direct help in developing
articulation by introducing such games and exercises as the fol-
lowing:

1. Discover the speech sounds which are defective by mak-
ing a ''sound book.* Paste a number of pictures in a book
illustrating certain speech sounds, a page for each sound.
Choose pictures illustrating the speech sound in initial,
medial, and final positions. To illustrate the ‘'k” sound,
for example, use a picture of a cat, a monkey, a duck, etc.
As the children name the pictures, note their mispronun-
ciations.

2. Help each child with (be particular sounds ha cannot say.
Show liim the position of the lips and tongue for the
sound. Have him listen to the sound in rhymes and jingles
and then practice it in easy, monosyllabic \vords, such as
key and cow.

3. Have children say a word as slowly as possible, then as
quickly as possible, “rhe slow performance will prepare
them for later blending sounds in phonetics.

4. Try choral speaking to give confidence to the stammering
child.

5. Have cliildren imitate sounds— an airplane, a train, an
auto, a clock, a dog, etc.

Experiences in Language 145

speech sonsds be helped throu^ the use of simple verses
or other lasguage materials whiA appeal to fiieir interests. A
poem about a whistling tea kettle can help to teach the “dT
sound. The rhymes found in The Jingle Booky by Alice L. Wood,“
and in Games and Jir^les for Speech Development, by Sarah
Barrows and K. H. Hall,** provide a painless medium for improv-
ing children’s enunciation of difficult sounds.

Most four- and fi\-e-year-olds enjoy pbjmg with words and
sounds, and the teacher can esploit this natural tendency to
improve the child’s ability to distinguish among sounds and to
enunciate accurately various sound combinations. Young children
like to rh)me words. ’Thej* like to make up and endlessly repeat
nonsense syllables. Even at this age they invent words which
sometimes are more descriptive and expressive than those found
In the dictionary.

Experiffleating with sounds is a normal phase of the young
chdd’s dm'clopmeQt and it seems to appeal to his sense of humor.
Many kindergarten teachers capitalize on the child’s natural inter-
est in srords by encouraging him to make up rb>'mcs and songs
or by calling lus attention to new or interesting words in poems
and stories. The books in Hugh Lofting’s "Dr. DolitUe" series
have delighted generations of young children, partly, at least,
because of the ridiculous names of some of the characters: Cub-
Cub, the baby pig; Too-Too, the owl; and Dab-Dab, the duck.
The poems of Laura Richards arc not only examples of first-rate
story telling hut contain many coined words that children enjoy—
"mufSn-hird," "mmmy-jums," "Climmering Glog," and "Wiggle-
d)A'.-asticums." Perhaps few childreTi can play with words with
more jojous confusion than she. Almost e\-ery child, whatever his
age, enjo)-s her "Elctelcpbony"; **

••Nw T«V, Dutton, >0*0.

*• Borton, Expoifiioa Pmi, isjOL

"•Vatu* Vuiaiia, TifTO-Urrw Bhymr* OU nivj S«r, Borton, littW. Brewn.

133a.

6. Play games requiring differeirt types of wice; baby with
a tiny voice, mother with a medium voice, father wth a
big deep toIcc, etc.

7. Tell or read a story, having children put appropriate ob-
jects on the flannel board when they are mentioned in the
story, naming each object as tl^y do so.

Developing Spontaneity and Vocobulory

The prime essential for expression is something to say; gram-
matical accuracy is a secondary consideration. Once we have
provided a rich emironment that will ^ve the child many expe-
riences to tall-' about, we strive to develop his spontaneity in
expression; that is, the willingness and desire to express him self
coupled with facility in doing so. Adults have often in the past
so stressed the importance of correct speech that they ba> e stifled
much of the child's natural creativity in language. Although they
greet each new uord of the infant with cries of delight, they often
greet the inexpert handling of language by the young school
child with little but critical comment Tbe child who enjoys
language will probably rid himself of most of his errors in rime,
hut fe^v cbildreo who dislike it will ever express themsehes well,
DO matter how carefully they are instructed in the rules of usage.

As they advance through sedtool, many children lose the feel-
ing they had at the age of three or four that language is fun;
it becomes merely a tool which they use, rather ineiperriy, for
only very practical purposes. It is the rare individual who retains
the delight in language with which he began. If we are to help
children retain some of their natural joy in verbal expression, we
must give less emphasis to correctness and more to spontaneity.
The kindergarten teacher can make a special contnbution in this
area, for she, unlike teachers in the grades, is not expected to
teach children grammar or usage and thus can concentrate on
developing their freedom and creativity in the use of spoken
language.

146 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

Ifl oSmStfiT] aj KKKupadx^

*S3uo itrrrc3{d aq

pfnoqj oSenSavj tpcn ctMausdia [rpmj osaq) ajoau 'UOfico
>;unuRno9 nj saouauadxa tjq luoi; oonacjsnw praoqouia o.\p3p
jsnin oq *Xipj Xjqiqe oScngoq siq doja^ap oj si P1T*P JI
^Sop V ‘aatprj b

‘JJKpoui c ‘(jtS V ‘op Aoq o uco jwjm .*n3jpfiip oqi uojjran^

•3}3 Uirid *qiOA\ ‘doq 'aai *qiBAV 'sq**-' auicS u aqcjq 'i
•313 ‘soqioja

Vaqto tppo ‘fiaa/qo oqrrisap aaq>[np a.\pj{ ■op ‘3uno.(

‘pp ‘pupf ‘/ddpqtin ‘Xddcq ‘aAejq ‘opiq ‘S;q flip Xaqi icqi
paaioid uioqi oabji -op ‘jpq jjos io *pivq ‘qiooins ‘paduis
•afliq “Siq ‘pai 'arqq aqj Suuq Daq>[n{3 oqi 3Atq pau sptq
luaiajpp JO Jtaqoma o pnij -saAipoIpp JOj oure3 b ©“IBiq *9
•OJ3 ‘Xpddcq ‘XpqoQ ‘Xpojnb ‘Xpcs ‘Xjmojs
'X pppb qpM oaqjpqa aAtjj "sqmpB joj atireS v oqrjq *S
•iroq B 'pmqaq ‘OAoqt 'Mopq ‘dptssq
'jspun 'do ‘tq pa^qo tre in j •suopisodaid joj suitS 6 *V
q; [ppi uuqi OAcq uaqi pue oaippp 01 <Ciq)S e pcajj •€
'suioi! aqi aurea oaqjjrqa aABj] ‘op ‘sio^oo
‘&iaqaniu 'saijsoddo ‘sXo} 'saop jaqiej sSorqi 'saop nqioui
sSatqi 'spunnu 'aimnimj 'sapoaSaA 'sifruj 'aidinwa joj
'S uperjsnqi »jn)3id jo ireqa a 8ar|uui Xq sioatqo Xjrsstj^ *e
'ssaoaiuas Jiaqi jo qi3ua[
sqi Saisaajsui X^taiprjS 'laafqns aqi inoqa qjai 01 uiaqi
aSejnosua pna ajnpid Strpsajaiai m aajppqs aq) Avoqj ‘T

.’sapqiqa a9rRSDC{ in moiS ppqo sqi dpq oj
jcaqavai oqi dpq osp ora Asopq paiqj suopsaSSns aqi Sors^

•dnoJS

oqi p looij in inoqB qpi oj JBqnucj paa aptSattj Sinqiatnos oAaq
ptA\ Xaqi laqi os atnoq tuoij sXoi diuoabj Suuq oi paScmoana aq
li{3pi uaippqo etuos •astaid tpnux pus ‘suopsaSSns jo sio^uimoa
Xpuaiij Sdijsjjo 'snoiitsjaAOoo Jpqi Souaiaa Xq aaippp isissa
treo JsqDcai aqx ‘uojssaJdxs jrio sjq dj aauapguoo'j^as prre uopotj
•sues atee-iS fcfojMap ppqa aqi “smsuS /CivptqcscA srq sy

As his vocabtilary grcnvs, the diild de\‘elops greater satis*
faction and self-confidence in his oral expression. Tlie teacher can
assist children by entering their conversations, offering friendly
comments or suggestions, and much praise. Some diildrcn might
be encouraged to bring favorite lays from liome so that Uicy vrill
have something tangible and fanuliar to talk about in front of the
group.

Using the suggestions listed below can also help the teacher
to help the child grow In language abilities:

1. Show tlie children an interesting picture and encourage
them to talk about the subject, gradually increasing the
length of their sentences.

2. Classify ob]ccts by making a chart of pictures illustrating,
for example, fruits, vegetables, furniture, animals, tilings
mother does, things father docs, to>-$, opposites, numbers,
colon, etc. Have cliildreo name tlie items.

3. Read a story to children and then have them retell it
Ktake a game for prepositions. Fut an object in, on, under,
beside, below, above, behind, a box.

$. Make a game for adverbs. Ifave children walk quickly,
slowly, sadly, quietly, nolsfly, happily, etc.

6. Make a game for adjectives. Find a number of different
lulls and have the children bring the hiue, red. big. h'ttle,
striped, smooth, hard, or soft ball, etc. Have them pretend
that they arc big, little, brave, happy, unhappy, kind, old,
young, etc. Have cliildren describe objects, each other,
dollies, etc,

7. Make a game for verbs. Walk, run, hop, work, play, etc.
Question the children: what can a boy do, a girl, a mother,
a father, a dog?

If llie child If to develop his bnguage ability fully, be must
derive emotional satisfaction from his exprriencri In communi-
cation. Hence these initial crpericnces with language should
be plcaiant ones.

Eiperimeet tn Langiuge H7

children should be praised and encouraged when their lan-
guage gives evidence of imapnation, rhythm, and sensitivity to
sound. Often the small child’s expressions are picturesque, and
such cTeati\'ity can be prolonged and fostered if given adequate
appreciation by adults. The kindergarten teacher can help the
child to derive increasing satisfacUon from language by guiding
his attention to desirable expression- She emphasizes the correct
^vay of saying something rather than children’s occasional mis-
takes. If she does find !t necessary to correct a child’s language,
she merely repeats correctly what he has said incorrectly. Most
young children ^vill then say it correctly in the pattern set by
the teacher.

hiany of the errors children make in English may be due to
the irregularities of the language itself. Children may actually be
more consistent than the rules of grammar. \Vhen the young diild
says that he “eated" an apple or “bitted” a ball, be is, of course,
speaking incorrectly, but he is also ^visg evidence of a good
deal of growth. Being able to generalize to the extent of realiziDg
that “-ed” changes a verb to the past tense is a demonstration of
real Intelligence. Unfortunately, English has many inegular verbs,
and tbe kiodergattaer does not yet know which verbs are tegular
and which are not In appraising children’s language usage,
teachers should take into account inconsistendes in the language
which Idndergartziers cannot be expected to understand.

Teachers of young children should also be aware that their
own speech becomes the pattern for much of the child’s language.
’Therefore, they must always speak correctly and, perhaps just as
important, distincfly. Just as the pattern of fiie teacher’s speech
is imitated, so are the pitch and timbre of her voice. A teadier
who has a raucous voice develops raucous voices in children.
The wise teacher lowers her voice to gain attention from children
rather than raising it. If she speaks softly but distinctly, soon
the children will be quiet and straining to hear; if she tries to
outshout the children she will soon find that they are trying to
outshout her.

148 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

Developing Good Listening Hoblts

One of the problems facing the kindergarten teacher is that
all the children want to talk at the same time. The child should
leam very early in his school career the need for taking turns in
conversation— for listening as wU as speaJdng. Because the four-
or five-year-old child is rather egocentric. It is difficult for him
to wait his turn to report his experiences. The teacher will need
considerable skill to guide children in developing the ability to
remain quiet when someone else is speaking. It may be necessary
to have young children raise their bands for permission to speak.
As the group increases in maturity and skill, sudr a procedure
should be eliminated so that the children leam to converse nat-
uraUy wth others. If children are encouraged to build their own
standards of behavior in the kindergarten, they become very
adept at disciplining one another when interruptions occur. In
fact, children are more eSective in disciplining their peers than
any adult could hope to be.

The child also learns how to listen os the teacher reads
stories, as she plays records, or as various children tell about
their experiences. *Show-and-tell time** and “sharing time" are
good opportunities for teacMng children bow to be good listeners.

The telling of original stories by the children is as much a
part of the story hour as the teacher’s reading or telling of stories.
Although much of what the child creates may be somewhat crude
and formless, he should be encouraged in this spontaneous kind
of expression, and the other children should be encouraged to
listen to him. To the young ddld, as we have pointed out through-
out this book, it is not the finished product that is important but
the activity.

Children need to be taught to fiecr as well as to listen. Such
games and exercises as the foDomog srill develop their auditory
sensitivity.

I. Recite jingles and nursery rhymes, especially those which
emphasize a particular sound, such as “Bye-Baby-Bunt

Experiences is Language 149

ing," “Hickory-Dickoiy-Dods/’ etc. Choral speaking oJ
rhymes and poems is helpful.

2. Have children listen for wor^ beginning \vith the same
sound and suggest other ^vo^ds be ginnin g with that sound.
Give a number of words begiiining with the same sound
and tlien give one beginning witir a different sound, as
“man, money, mother, milk, many, sled" and have chil-
dren raise hands as soon as the different word is pro-
noimced. Do the same with rhyming words.

3. Make a chart containing pictures of objects beginning
with the same sound. Have <diUdteQ point to each picture,
naming it and listening for beginning sound.

Give oral directiaos involving Uvo commissions, then
three, then four or five. "Put a pencil on the table, hop
around the room, and then stand by the desk." Children
watch to see if the child does all the commissions; if he
forgets one, other children try until one child succeeds.

5. Tell a simple story of ^vo or diree sentences. Have chil-
dren retell it as accurately as possible.

6. Tap 00 the desk several times. Have chffdren listen, count
mentally, and then tell the number of taps. Vary by tap-
ping slowly, quickly, and in iiKgular rbythm.

7. Have children play singing and musical games.

8. Have children close then eyes while one child recites a
jingle. Others try to guess who spoke by recognizing his
voice.

Writing Experiences

No longer is the Idndergaiten child expected to know how
to write his name. Only dtose cdiildren who manifest especial
interest in writing should be encouraged to do so. Many first-
grade teachers prefer that the cdiild begin his first-grade experi-
ence without having learned to write his name, because the
manner in whiidi he has been taught to write it at home or in

15t) Teaching the kindergarten ChSd

kindergarten may differ from that used in first grade. Most parents
teach their children the use of the fwinted alphabet rather than
manuscript. It might be wise to orient parents of kindergartners
to tile manuscript alphabet in order to forestall any necessity for
relearning and consequent ctmfusion in first grade.

There is little need for written expression in the kindergarten.
Writing is usually restricted to letters dictated by the group to
the teacher, to thank people who have done some favor for the
children, to ask for information, to invite parents to visit, or to
greet a child who has been absent because of illness. Toward
the end of the year, a few mature children may ask the teacher
to write a simple one- or two-sentence “story" to accompany a
picture. Sometimes children returning from an excursion which
has been especially meaningful may wish to compose a group
story, with Illustrations of what they have seen. The teacher, of
course, in all Instances does the writing in manuscript. Such writ*
Ing activities demonstrate to children some of the many functions
of the written word and thus contribute to tbeir “readiness" for
reading and writing in the first grade.

"Reacfing" Experiences

The program of the kindergarten should be planned so as to
provide the child with an abundance of first-hand experiences
which he can draw upon in /earning to express himself. But it
should also provide vicarious, or "second-hand,” experiences
through stories and poems. Through these media, also, the child
learns that the written word can be a source of pleasure and
information, that it can not only afford him enjoyment— the pri-
mary purpose of the literature program in the kindergarten— but
also acquaint him svith his environment and interpret to him the
world in which be lives. Books and stories, then, are not a substi-
tute for living; rather, they add immeasurably to its richness.

Storytelling also provides one of the best situations for help-
ing children leam to listen attentively for increasing lengths of

Experiences in Language 151

lime. Under favorable conditions, the kindergarten child is able
to sit and listen to an interesting story for as long as fifteen to
twenty minutes. A few finger plays (see pp. 257-60) may be an
cSective means of attracting die tUtention 0! tiie group. The
teacher should, of course, make certain that children are comfort-
ably seated, that they can “see," and that the stories are suf-
ficiently short, interesting, and within the group's experience.

Choosing the Story

Most teachers tend to err on the side of choosing stories that
are too complicated in sentence stniehire or vocahulaiy ralher
than stories that are too simple. Stories for Idndergartners are
good only when the children enjoy them. Even if they are rated
as classics by adults, they are poor if the children are unable to
understand them or are Wed by them. And the best svay to find
out what interests children in the kindergarten is to obsm'e them
at play and listen to their conversations.

Some things which cannot be done ivith children In large
groups can be done easily with one or two children. A child by
himself or with a friend svill listen for fairly extended periods
of time to stories read or told to him-even stories that would
not hold the interest of a kiDdergarten group. The presence of
other children tends to distract the attention of even the cdiild
who, by himself, greatly enjoys being read to. Then too, in any
group of children there is a great range of individual differences.
Some children, perhaps because they have had little previous
experience with literature, have difficulty in focusing their atten-
tion on stories for more than a few minutes at a time, and when
they become restless they may distracA the otiiers in the class,
emdren also differ in the extent to which they can understand
and enjoy certain lands of stories.

Unfortunately, most teaidiers are forced to adapt the level
of the story told and the length of the story-telling hour to the
capabilities and interests of tfie aTOiage or below-average child.

152 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

H the teacher Is so fortunate os to have some assistance, chfldrcn
can be divided Into groups for the story hour, to allow for indi-
vidual needs. X.acldng help, the teacher might encourage llic
child who has greater oppredation for litcrahire than the average
to take home storj’ books from the kindergarten librar)- so tluJt
his parents can read them to him. Most four- and Cve-ycar-olds
will End this a ver>’ exciting piopodtion.

The young cliild most enjoj-s stories about home life and
about children like those in his experience— like himself. He likes
stories about cliildrcn who do things tlial he too would like to do
and stories about animals. Stories for the kindergartner should
be realistic, with a surprise in them. If possible, and with much
action and direct conversation.'*

The cliilds dramatic play provides valuable clues to his
interests. Ills first heroes ore the "doers beginning witli his own
motlter and father, wlio perform the endless domestic miracles
which he experiences every day. Most four- and five-ycar-okU
prefer to take the roles of firemen, policemen, or postmen-rolci
within thclf cverj-day cxperienco-to those of kings or queens,
which are not part of their world.

Young chikben seem drawn to living erealurcs, and few
"fours'* and "fives" do not enfoy stories about dogs, cats, rabbits,
and other animab familiar to their environment. TIic joung child
often endows animab with the same llioughts and feelings as
those lie experiences. Cliildrcn recognize themselves in such
characters as reter Ilabfnt. became, like Peter, most >t)ung cfill-
tlren liavc at some time nr other pollen into trouble liccausc
they disobcj’cd tliclr mother.

However, the four- or five-year-oW child b not yet ready
for fj-mbolic stories nliout nature, such as "How the rabbit got
hb long ears" or "Wliy the robin’s breast is red." The kinder-
gartncT cannot understand live significance of such stories; they
should be presented bfer, when the cliild lias a better liold on

** tl«lm liriimun, CuUinx fV Yeuna Child. Botten. iinih, lojt.

Experiences In Lantnup* 1S3

reality. Such traditional stories as ‘Teter Rabbit," “The Three
Bears” and “Tbe Three Little Kgs” may be the only kind of
fanciful nature or animal stories that most kindergartners can
truly enjoy.

At one time it was belics’ed that any story which was short,
had a simple vocabulary, and was sufficiently moralistic was
suitable for the young child. But during recent years our im-
proved understanding of children has been reflected in the stories
rvritten for them. VVe have discarded the obviously moral story
along with tlie symbolic. Stories of this type mean very little to
the young child; he lacks the experience necessary to understand
them.

But, in selecting realistic stories for (diildien, we must be
careful not to become so interested in the content that we forget
about quality. Stories of everyday experiences need not be drab
and commonplace; even if the theme is drawn from everyday life
the story con have literary merit and charm. Nor do stories for
children seed to be ^vritteo down until they become an insult
to tbe child's intelligeace.

Children like humorous stories, provided that the humor is
not too sophisticated.'^ The young child's sense of humor is broad
and, from the adult point of vierv, rather crude. Children laugh
hilariously at slapstick physical situations-at someone f allin g into
tbe ^vater, getting pulled into die air by a gas-filled balloon, or
ripping his clothing. They also find humor in queer names and
nonsense syllables. What sends diildren into gales of laughter
sometimes leaves adults without a smile, because die child's sense
of the ridiculous is so different from the adults. On the other
hand, children cannot see humor in what adults feel is absurd
rmtil they are sufficiently familiar with the ordinary and common-
place. Many books ostensibly written for children can be ap-
preciated only by adults. Tbe teacher may be amused by books
about children which in effect poke fun at their immaturity.
But even if such books are heavily illustrated, written in a

May HiB Aibatbno^ Children and Bookt, Chicago, Scott, Foresman, 1957.

154 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

limited vocabulary, and bear all the other superficial earmarks
of a book for the Idndergartner, it is unsuitable for him, for
he lacks the perspective necessary to enjoy it

Book Illustrations

To the young child, pictures arc the story, and the teacher
who is reading to Idndergartners should make sure that all chil-
dren can see the illustrations. She should be so well acquainted
with the story that showing the pictures becomes the most impor-
tant part of the activity. If the group is unusually large, the
teacher shoidd assure diildrcu that tliey will get to see the pic-
tures after the story is finished. Or she may wish to show the
illustrations before she begins to tell the story and again after
she has read it.

Childreit seem to have some rather strong preferences in
illustrabons. They appear to enjoy pictures of children, of ani-
mals, and of other familiar subjects. They like pictures which are
close to the reality that they know. Mellioger says that young
children cannot appreciate pictures unless 'the finer interpreta-
tions of the artist express feelings >vithln their ecpeiience.*

Young children prefer pictures tvilh bright colors, plenty of
action, and no distracting details. Brightly hued pictures have
much greater appeal than silhouettes, black-and-white drawing
or photograplis, or pictures with very delicate colors.** In fact,
Dalglicsh*® finds that 'Many children of kindergarten age will
choose an uninteresting colored picture in preference to an inter-
esting black and white one.' They prefer line drawings to sil-
houettes, and they prefer halftones (i.e., photographs, paintings,
washes, or otherwise shaded renditions) to line drawings.

i< Bonnie C. MeUineer, quoted In J. &tun^ Lee and Dorris M. Lee, The
Child and llh Currlctdum, New Yeil; Appletoa-CeDtuiy-Crorts, 1950,
p. MO-

*• ttcQeman, op. dt., p. laa.

'•Alice Dilgllesh, First Experiencei ttith Ulerature, New York, Scribner,
153a, pj>. ai, aa.

Experiences in Language 155

Children appear to be very much aNvaie o( the physical
make-up of books. They show a marked preference for books
wth many illustrations, and they pirfcr large pictures to small
ones. Even the size of the book seems to have some influence.
Young children seem to prefer large bools and large t>'pe to
small books and small tj^e. The cover of the book is also
important. "Children prefer an illustrated cover and a binding
of bright color." "

Children also enjoy humor in illustrations, but it must be
simple and easy to rmderstand. Good illustrations have as much
appeal for children as the text of the book. Any number of illus-
trators are creating beautiful books for children— loo many to be
discussed here. Huber's Story and Verse for Children has an
unusually good listing and discussion of children's book illus-
trators.

Picture-story books not otdy afford genuine pleasure to the
fdndergarten child but also may help to develop a readiness for
reading. Many of the origioal stories of children are inspired by
pictures in story books.

Poetry for Children

Contrary to the belief of many teachers, children enjoy
poetry, espedally poetry whidi has a musical quality. One of
the best ways of instilling in children a liking for and an appre-
ciation of poetry is to pve them pleasant experiences with it at
an early age. listening to and reciting poetry should be joj-ous
experientKS. The kindergaiteo leadier should have at her com-
mand a variety of poems appropriate to many occasions which
she can produce as the need arises.

Poetry more than any other form of literature can help chil-
dren to des'elop sensitivity to language. It is the “melody and
movement," the cadence of the words, that appeals first to chil-

« Miriam B. Story end Vtnt for Children, Kew Ymk, VtaosiBaQ.

1955. PP- 33.34-

156 Teadiing die Kiodergarten Child

dren. They respond to it with enjoyment and participation, much
as they do to mxisic.

Poetry is meant to be heard and spoken. From their earliest
experiences with ft, chfidren should be encouraged to join in
reciting poetry with the teacher. Children who are given many
such opportunities to join informally in repealing poetry will soon
accumulate quantities of verse without effort

Although children enjoy jingles and rhymes, poetry need
not necessarily rhyme in order to appeal to Idnder^rtners. Much
modem poetry has rhythmic qualities without rhyming. And
many of the poems that children themselves create are in free
verse or poetic prose rather than in more traditional poetic form.

To build and maintain the interest of the young child in
poetry, Lane” gives the following advice to teachers:

1. Unless you love poetry, don't attempt to give it to children.
Some people seem to be quite iosensibVe to poetry, and
if you are one of these, leave poetry to the teacher in the
next classroom.

2. Give children many and varied experiences in poetry.
Do not confine poetical selections to the few standardized
ones so that children’s tastes are sot explored.

g. Encourage children to express themselves honestly about
the poems they like. Do not be disturbed if their tastes
do not coincide with yours.

4. Give children some poetry %vritten for people older than
themselves. Much of the poetey written for cdiildren is
quite condescending.

5. Recite poems rather than read them. A teacher who is
independent of the book has more freedom of expression,
which adds interest to the poem.

ITiese suggestions, of course ^pply well to stories for the
kindergarten— and even to aspects of the music and ait program.

** Pobeit Lan«, The Teacher in ih« tfodem Elementerv School, Boston,
ilou^ton MiiEin, 1041. p. a88.

Experiences in Language 157

In subject matter, poetry for chfldren should be similar to
stories and illustrations for cMdren: Idndergartners enjoy poems
about themselves and their o^s’n activities, about animals and
other familiar things in their environment. However, the teacher
must be careful to distinguish betw'een poems svritten for children
and those written about children. Many so-called poems for
children are actually poems for adults which merely describe
the amusing antics of children from an adult point of view.
To the extent that poetry is self-conscious, sentimental, or conde-
scending, it is unsuitable for use svith children.

Telling the Story

In order to help children learn to value and enjoy poetry
and stories, the teacher should learn to narrate welh The good
storyteller chooses material suitable to the age and interests of
her audience, selecting the best bom wbat is available. She learns
£he story or poem so well that she is not dependent on the text
If she is telling rather than reading, she Imows the material well
enou^ to be able to tell it simply and naturally, with all the
feeling and humor demanded but ivithout overdramatization. She
knows how to handle the interruptions of children tactfully and
does not interrupt herself unnecessarily. The story hour can
become a burden instead of a Joy to children if the teacher feels
a need to comment excessively during the reading of a story or
if she thinks evaluation is necessary after its completion. The
child is robbed of a delightful experience if he must ans^ver a
series of questions to prove that he has understood. The wise
storyteller knows that it matters little if the child has not under-
stood the story in its entirety, provided tiiat he has enjoyed it
and has acquired impressions and images it Children feel
no need to have everything explained.

The question of whether the storyteller should memorize a
story word for word needs to be considaed. When preparing

158 Tea thing fiie Xindergaitea Child

a story, a good plan is to visualize the action ralljer than the
words. If she laio%vs the action, the narrator will not need to know
the jirecise ivords used by the author. (Some classics, however,
among stories for children are best told in the ori^nal language.
It would be difEcult to improve on the style of the Just So Stories
or Alice in Wonderland.) Most important, the good storyteller
presents the story but keeps herself in the backgroimd, knowing
that it is the images and Ideas in die story that are valuable
rather than gestures or efforts at interpretation on her part.

A natural outgroivth of story time is drama&atiDn. Children
spontaneously and universally participate in dramatic play, and
they like espcdally to act out favorite stories. Dramatization has
value in language development; further, it provides on excellent
opportunity to develop originality and imagination. It not only
helps children to add to their fund of information and to their
store of words but also helps them develop greater facility in
the use of sentences.

Any activity which helps children increase their language
ability is valuable in the kindergarten. Language is an indispen*
sable tool for children because, no matter what Uie area of human
experience into which tlic school leads its learners, the guideposts
along the way are decipherable in terms of language. Tlie four-
or 6ve-year*old is being rapidly catapulted into the world of sym-
bols, and the more opportunities he has to develop Ids language
abilities, the more easily be will be able to adjust to his cnvirDn-
meat

Problems for Discussion

1 . Miss Zim says that a child can be recognized as slow leamlog for
more easily when cliildren ore engaged In a langtiage activity
than when they are on tho playgnitmd. flow might she fustily this
contention?

3. Should a story which teaches a moral never bo read to Under-
gattners? Defend your answer.

hi Language 159

g. Observe some Vioiergarten cSiSdren and by to ascertain vfbat
lands of things make them laugh. How do they compare with the
kinds of things that make you and other adults laugh?

4. What would be the determining factor in your decision to tell a
stoiy rather than read it?

5. In the Elm School Kindergarten, which dratvs its population from
the upper sodoeconomie dass. most of the children srem to have
Lttle hesitancy in expressing themselves in front of the group. On
the other hand, children in the Grove Street Kindergarten, most
of whom come from families in the Icnver socioeconomic group,
are shy about talking. Can you account for the diiTercnces between
these two groups of children? Are these differences to be expected
in most situations like this? Why?

6. Miss Johnson reports that speeth dinidans to her school system
do not do any corrective >vork with individual kindergarten chil-
dren. Can you find any Justification for thi< apparent unconcern
about the speech problems of kutdeigartners?

7. At a recent PTA meeting. Miss Ford suggested that the mothers
of her klndergaitnen encourage the diildren to bring a few of their
favorite toys to school. These toys, she says, will help the diddren
learn to talk before the group berause they will give the young-
sters something to talk about. Why should Miss Ford go to this
trouble? 'Why shouldn’t she just encourage the childreD to talk
about their toys without hrin^g them to school?

8. Which is more difficult for (be young child, listening or speaking?
Why?

g. As a rule. Miss Dandridge does not interrupt diildren when they
are speaking before the group to correct ^ir enOrs in F.nglish
usage. Do you agree with this procedure? What facton related to
how the diild leams to use language are involved here?

Suggested Additional Reading

Adams, Bess Porter, About Books and Children. New York, Henry Holt
& Co., Inc., 1933.

Anostasi, A., and d'Angelo, R. Y., “A Comparison of Negro and White
Prcsdiool Children in Language Development and Goodenough
Draw-A-Man I.Q." Journal cf Cenetic Fsychologi/, J932, LXXXI,
*47-®5-

160 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

Arbulhnot, May Hill, Children and Books. Hev. cd., Chicago, Scott,
Foresman & Company, 1957.

—— rt al.. Childrens Books Too Good <0 Afto. Rev, ed., Qevcland,
Wojtcm Reserve Univenify Press, 1953. (An annotated bibliogra-
phy.)

Arsenian, S., “Dflingualism Ib the Postwar AVorld." PstjcJioloelcal
Buffrtln. 1945, XLtI, 65-86.

Bibliography of Booh for CliBdten. Rev. ed., Washington, D. C,
Association for Childhood Education Intemational, }gs6.

Brewton, John E., and Brewton, Sara W., cds., Irtdex to Children's
Poetry. First supplement, New Yofk, IL W. Wilson Co., 1954.

Children’s Boohs for Elgfiiy-fice Cents or Less. Rev. ed., Washington,
D, C., Association for Childhood Education International, 1952.

Children's Books for $1.3$ or Less. Rev. ed., Washington, D. C.,
Association for Childhood Education International, 1957.

Sawyer, Ruth, The Way of tlte Storyteller. New York, Tlie Viking
Press, Inc., X942.

Anlholosies for Children

Arbuthaot, May Hill, ed., Time for Poetry. Chicago, Scott, Foresman
& Company, 1951.

Doano, Pelagie, ed., A SnusU ChiUs Book of Verse. New York, Ojcford
University Press, Inc., 1948.

Eaton, Anne T„ ed., Beading ictfA Children. New York, The Viking
Press, Inc., 194a.

Cfuenherg, Sidoaie, ed., Favorite Stories Old end New. New York,
Douhlcday & Company, Inc., 1955.

Johnson, Edna; Scott, Carrie; Siddes, Evelyn, eds., Anthology of
Childrens Literature. Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1948.

Ataitignoni, Mar^ret, ed., Illustrated Treasary of Children's Litera-
ture. New York, Crosset & Dunlap, 1935.

Experiences in Language 161

10 . Play and Games

Play among children is universal. It is a biological necessity
through whidi growth takes place. Regardless of their culture,
all children participate in play activities of some Idnd.

Play is ^’ltally related to the child’s need to be active, to
grosv, to give motor reactions in response to situations. Through
play, the child develops his growing body, building up the vitality
which facilitates his emotional, intellectual, and social growth.
Flay Is, as well, the child’s avay of learning about the ^vorId
through experimentation ^v^th his environment, his chief method
of self.education. It is also one of die most important means by
which he grows in his social bdiavior. And through play die
child can express and release many of his emotional tensions.
Flay, therefore, is not something in which the child should be
'indulged” until he Is old enough to do “worthwhile" thin^. Play
should be encouraged because it is the child’s chief business.

Because play involves every aspect of the young child’s
development, children perhaps learn more through play than
through any other activity. The child's play seems to be one of
nature’s ^vays of enabling him to receive innumerable sensations
and to develop his powers of observation. In bis play the child
manipulates and experiments with all manner of objects and
materials, learning to use his environment purposefully. He is

162

stimulated imaginatively and creatively. He tries and often makes
errors in judgment, but he also often succeeds. Through play, the
eliild exerts his growing mental powers. Observe, hr example,
the child who has just become aware of the meaning of numbers.
He coimts the blocks as he takes them oil the shelf; he counts
tlje jars of paint at tlie easels; he counts people; he counts things.
He uses numbers wherever the opportunity arises; he counts
everything in sight and then counts again. This counting is a
game to the child, hut it is also a valuable learning activity.

The wise kindergarten teacher capitalizes on the child's nat-
ural love for play os an important avenue for learning. She
watches for opportunities to teach safety habits, for example, in
dramatic-play situations. Tlie child’s dehght in “playing automo-
bile" can become the basis for teaching the significance of tiie
traffic signals and otlier essential rules of safety.

Dramatic play also offers opportunities for tlie teacher to
observe and improve children’s soda) understandings and atti-
tudes. If, when a group of kindergaitners are “playing grocery
store," the teacher finds that the “clerks" do not know how to
answer the telephone properly, she can take the opportunity
afforded by the play situation to teach them the social amenities
involved in such an activity. If chQdren appear to reject a ^ven
child or to place him always In relatively unimportant roles, the
teacher can use a dramatic-pby situation to teach children that
they all have something to contribute to the group. She might
call attention to some special talent of the child in question,
pointing out, for example, that Tony has a good voice and would
therefore be a much better barker than water carrier when the
children are playing circus. Or she might suggest that the chil-
dren take turns being ringmaster so that each has a diance to
play the most important role.

Play, in addition, helps to meet the child’s emotional need
to belong, to be like others, to haw status in the group and a
feeling of personal worth. Hiysical prowess and skill in games
and stunts appears to rank hi^ among the factors which lead

Tlay and Caates JB5

to a child’s acceptance by bis age mates. The child who can swing
successfully from the trapeze bar has the adulation of the group,
and the child who can run so fast that he never gets tagged is
the envy of all his classmates. Many a mentally slow child who
is rejected in the classroom is accepted on the playground if he
is sldllful in games. The effect on the child’s personality of adiiev-
ing some success in motor perfonnance is striking. All tensions
seem to be eased; he expresses his satisfaction in his language
and laughter, and he seems to radiate |oy.

Success in other forms of play can be no less significant.
Children generally do not play at things which they do not do
well; their play, therefore, can give them a measure of adiieve-
ment to offset poor perfonnance in areas in which they are less
competent Just as the child who climbs to the topmost rung of
tlie jungle gym is, at least znomentarily, a beto, so also is the
child who can manage to build a boat of blocks so that all can
take a ride. Even if the child is not physically strong or adept,
he can experience the glow of success in play activities of his
choice.

Ihe play group provides a natural setting for teaching chil-
dren many invaluable lessons in soda] adjustment which will be
of help to them throughout their lives. In the process of group
play, children learn the need for establishing and obeying rules
and for subordinating their own desires to the interests of tiie
group. By sharing play experiences and materials, they learn to
exercise self-control, to listen lo both sides of a controversy, and,
above all, to be fdr. Flay involves the ability to adjust; it necessi-
tates a degree of independence and self-direction. Play is democ-
racy in action. It develops both leaders and followers, and it
recognizes the contribution that each child can make to the group
welfare. Play is one of the cdiilds Erst introductions to self-
disdpline. A child who disobeys the rules of a game or who
interferes with the play of other children will be promptly and
effectively corrected by his peers. In this manner he soon learns

164 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

tlie need for restraining his own impulses in order to participate
in group activity, and he learns, too, that he lias a responsibility
for the success and a share in the consequences of that activity.

Play has many functions and many values. It may be an
expression of sheer exuberance, as when children aimlessly run
and shout. This is the blowing-off-steam kind of play. In contrast,
dramatic and imaginative play permit the child to experience
vicariously much of what be sees about him. Play Is, then, a
muscle builder and a mental developer, a sodalizing force and
an emotional release. Above all, to children, pkiy is work. In fact,
it may be the hardest kind of %votl:, grueling, tiring, and some-
times discoura^g. But it can aho give the eliild a compensating
measure of self-realiaation and pride in his efforts and thus can
be of great value. Because play serves so many functions in the
lives of young children, no dear distinction can be drawn be-
tween play and work. >Vhat Is important is the teacberV under*
standing of how children leam tlvough play and of the work
elements present, to some degree, in all play.

Developmental Stages in Play

The modem school now recognizes that most of the child's
Erst year in school must be devoted to socializing him, to helping
him leam to coKiperate in a group. Tlu's sodal groivth is a slow
process, dependent on maturity and experience. In the process
of group play the cliild learns many lessons of social adjustment
and adaptation. Experiences in taking turns, in sharing, in playing
the game fairly all add to the socialization process.

By the time the child is four or 6ve years old, he has made
great strides in socialization. But few children of this age are
sufficiently socialized to play co-operatively. There seem to fae
several developmental stages through which all children pass
before they are capable of full partidpation in group activities.

The very young child plays by himself; other children have
little soda! value to him. At about the age of three, the child

Play and Games 165

becomes a^vare of others playing near him. He may pursue the
same activity as the other children, but he is not yet playing ivith
another child. Two cluldren playing beside each other at the
sand box may at first appear to be playing together, but brief
obser%'ation will demonstrate that Uiis is “parallel play" —each is
pursuing his own interests. Althou^ they are near each other,
tiiere is no interchange of ideas and usually no sharing of toys.

At a slightly later stage of development the child is capable
of “associative play" in small groups wdth other children. In this
setting the children have a common purpose, hut the group itself
is very fluid, with children leaving or returning to participate at
wilL For example, John suggests pkiying fireman. A few children
begin to construct a fire station, with John as chief. During the
process Jim joins the group, appointing himself fire chief. John,
tiring of the worh of constroctiog the fire station, wanders off
to see what is going on In the doU house comer. He does not
rehm, but the project continues withont him. Other children
join the group or wander off without materially upsetting the
origiiial plans. Such leadership as may exist in a group lilce this
is unstable and shifting. Althou^ there are occasions, even at
this early age, tvhen real leadership does reside in one individual,
usually leadership passes from cl)ild to child without any great
distuihance. Associative play characterizes many groups of four-
year-olds or even older duldien who have had little group
experience.

Eventually, children become capable of genuinely co-opera-
tive play in a group with some pattern of organization and clearly
defined leadership wluch holds it together. Few fis'e-yeai-olds,
however, are sufficiently mature to play co-operatively in a group
of mote than two or three duldreo. Typically, thildien cannot
participate in truly co-operative play in a larger group until they
are about nine years old.

Many five-year-olds, even mature ones, spend a great deal
of time— perhaps as much as one third to one half of the kinder-

166 Teaching the Sindergailcn Child

garten day-playing by themselves,* altliough they also play fre-
quently in small groups, working on common projects. Sometimes
cltlldrcn become ovcrsUmulaled and need to work or play by
themselves. The clUld's need to be alone occasionally is normal
and should be rcspcctcfl by llie teacher— and by oll)cr cliildrcn.
Tho teacher should provide space where children can work or
play a\\’ay from the group and materials for solitary as well as
group play.

Tlicre is no sudden shift from one stage to anotlter in play
or in any other developmental sequence, and, of course, there
are great rUffcrcnccs among children in the rate at whidr they
progress from one stage to another. At any given time, all le\-els
of dc%Tlopment may be found In the kindergarten. Some five-
year-olds may spend most of their time In parallel pby, like tlie
t)’pical ihrce-ycar-old; some "fours" arc as capable of co-operat-
ing In email groups os older chlldrra arc. Much of this diiTcrenco
may be due to the c.Tpcrlcnccs which clUldrcn have had previous
to sc}k>o 1 entrance. Tlic cliild wlio has had little association >vith
oilier cliildrcn >N‘ill need more help in integrating ivitli a group
than the child who has had much experience playing with others
of Ills age in tlic neighborhood or 0>e nursery school.

Ei-cn tliough there arc wide diOcrcnccs among individuals
in group co-operation, at the I>rglnni»g of the kindergarten year,
few of the children will be capable of much co-operative endeavor
of any kind. But many children, os they approach their sixth
birthday, become able to co-operate to the extent of playing very
simple team games. Tlie game— pcrliaps a relay race— may be
absurdly simple by adult standards, but the ability of young
children to function in it marks a forivard step in their social
development. Tlic cliild who can participate successfully In even
a simple game lias developed, at least to some ertrat, the ability
to subordinate his own desires to the interests of the group or
to identify them >vith the group interests.

* Ruth SlranS) An Introduelton to Child Stvdt/i New Tort, Macmlltin, 1951,

P- rSo-

Play and Games 167

Quarreling Among Young ChiMren

Since children express their e^s through their play activities,
there will inevitably be some conflict of personalities during play.
We have some evidence that nursery-school attendance increases
the number of fi^ts and quarrels among children— perhaps be-
cause the nursery-school child has many more social contacts with
many more diildren than ever before in his experience.*

As children mature, quarreling becomes less frequent But
all desirable qualities grow slmvly; before children can relinquish
the need for fighting and quarreling, they must have much
experience with techniques of social adjustment and they roust
have the security gained from many successes. Althou^ the
kindergarten year sees a good deal of progress in social develop-
ment, conflicts \vill continue to occur; children ^vi^ continue to
settle disputes b^* physical force, name-caOing, or appeals to
adulb. Most preschool children fluctuate greatly in their response
to other cHldien. Sometiines they show love and sympathy, at
other times hostility and aggression. At this age friendships are
short-lived and rather volatile. Research indicates that friends
tend to quarrel more, rather than less, than nonfriesds, perhaps
because friends spend more time togetiier and therriore have
more occasions to disagree.* These quarrels may be marked by
real anger, but, fortunately, prolonged anger among young chil-
dren is rare. Children who one moment appear to be quarreling
violently may be bosom pals the next In fact, a violent quarrel
may serve to cement the friendship.

Exccssi\'e quarreling among young children may be a sign of
social immaturity; it may also indicate immaturity in language
development For j-oung children who are deficient in language,
phjrical violence may be the only means of expressing their
wishes and of defending themselves. Some immature four- and

* A. T. Jersil^ and F. V. Cpnpict* Between Preeehool Children,

Quid Development Monograph No. ai. New York, Bureaa of Puhhcations,
Teachen College. Columbia Uohemtr, 1835*

* Horace En g lish , Child Ptyehologv, New York, Holt, 1951 .

168 Teadiing the Kindergarten Child

five-year-olds use hitting or other physical means of gaining atten^
tion to make social contacts with others. Violence is sometimes
nothing more than the young child's way of astdng to join a play
group, and he may use it merely because he knows no other way
of communicating with others.

The teacher will need to help some children to gain sufficient
experience and facility in language to be able to ash other chil-
dren to play with them or share toys instead of using physical
aggression to make their wishes known. Children who are unable
to use language to settle differences should not be disciplined
too severely for using physical force; punishment or overcriticism
of such children may deprive them of any defense. Quarreling
is a stage in social development; children should not he punished
for what is essentially immaturity. Rather, the teacher should help
such children to grow in language facility and to learn that they
can play more happily if they ask to join a group than If they
make their presence or wishes kooui} by attaddng other chil-
dren. As children mature they talk more in their tiuarrels, de-
pending more and more on argumrat rather than on physical
force.

Children from the lower socioeconomic groups may need
special help in this area. As we have pointed out in an earlier
chapter, such children tend to be immature in language develop-
ment as compared with other (diildren of their age. They may,
in addition, be immature soctaDy because they have had little
previous experience in co-operating either with adults or viith
other children. To add to the problem, although middle-class
parents on the whole discourage fighting as a means of settling
disputes, parents in the lower socioeconomic groups often en-
courage it. For these reasons, the play of lower-cbss children
is usually more aggressive than that of middle- or upper-class
children. Appel found that day-nursery children from under-
pri\*ifeged groups not only had a larger totai number of confficts
than nursery-school cldldren from more favored environments
but tiiat, as might be expected, there were relatively more con-

Play and Carnes 169

flicts over possession of material objects than among children
from the hi^er socioeconomic groups.* Tlie teacher should try
to help these children learn to settle their differences by less
violent means. She may need to work vvith them to improve their
language patterns.

We have evidence * that more quarrels occiu- in situations
of restricted space and inadequate play fadlities than in kinder-
gartens ^vitb ample playgrounds and equipment Unfortunately,
few teachers are in a position to expand the kindergarten play
area or improve the facilities. Hmvever, the teacher can do much
to help children in their interrelationships. This does not mean
that she should interfere with tlieir play or impose adult standards
of social behavior on children. Too muidi interference with chil-
dren at play may increase rather than decrease friction; what
appears in adult eyes to be a quarrel may be just the beginning
of a satisfactory period of play with a 6lend. So long as childreo
are working out their problems of interrelationships in a manner
compatible %vith their stage of maturity, adults should not inter-
fere. Ho^vever, if children are unable to partidpate satisfactorily
in the group, they should be helped to improve their behavior
so that they will be acceptable to others.

Sometimes a child becomes troublesome because be is unable
to fit into the play situation. Because be cannot be fire chief,
he may use his energy to aimoy other children who are play-
ing fireman. If the teacher helps him by suggesting to him and
the group that “John would make a good hoseman” the play
goes on in a maimer satisfactory to all. But should she merely
forbid the child to annoy the others, rather than suggesting a
way in which he can join their play, she will both make the
child resentful and deny him the opportunity to improve his
relationships with other children.

* M. H. Appel, "Aggressive Behavior of Natseiy School Children arnt Adult
procedures in Dealing with Sadi Behavior.'* Journal of Experimental Edu-
cation, 1942, XI, 183-99.

•Strang, op. cit., p. i8g.

170 Teadiing the Kindergaitea Child

Ilirsrprefing Play Behavior

Tlie play of the child re\'eals much of his inner life— not only
his concerns and interests but also his needs and problems. From
a diagnostic point of view, observation of the child's play gives
good clues for guidance. The diitd engages in pLny wholeheart-
edly, lIiTO\ving off all self-consdousness and restraint. He reveals
his true nature in hts play, and if be is disturbed he svill show
it in Uiese moments wlien ho is really liimself. Play behavior
therefore is an important indicator of the child’s mental and
emotional state.

Children who are immature or who have had limited expe-
rience in playing seem to prefer free muscular play, involving
climbing, nmning, and jumping activities. Children who harbor
a great deal of aggression may engage in destructive kinds of
play— knocking dosvQ blocks, puUiag tilings to pieces, and other-
wise destroying or damaging toys and tnaleriab. Children who
ore emotionally disturbed may tend to prefer playing with things
to playing with otlier children. Often they ate very demanding
of the teacher's attention. They may frequently regress to very
infantile types of play activity— aimless piling of blodcs, aimless
ball throwing, apparently purposeless paint daubing.

The child’s dramatic play may be the most significant indi-
cator of his emotional adjustment Because dramatic play is a
natural medium of self-expression for the child, he reveals in it
bis desires, fears, grievances— everything that disturbs him. In
his play he can act out his problems in a manner acceptable to
himself and to others-somelhing which he would be unable to
do otherwise. For this reason, specialists in child psychology use
a form of dramatic play as the basis for their diagnosis and
treatment of children’s emotional problems.* In play therapy, the
child not only reveals what Is of concern to him but also can be
helped to wrk through to a solution.

• See V. Axline, Flay Therapf/t Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1947; and
R. E. Jlartiy, L. £. Fianic, and R. M. Coldnisoa, Understanding Children's
Flay, New Yotk, Columbia UnivenSty xg$s.

Play and Comes 371

Needless to say, tlie IdndragaiteQ teadiei should use the
utmost caution in interpreting the play behavior of children or
attempting to handle their emotional difEcuIdes. This is a field
best left to specialists. She should, however, be aware that a
child's play behavior must sometimes be taken at more than face
value. And althou^ the teaser is not able to handle the prob-
lems of seriously disturbed children, she may be of help to some
who are eiperiencing nunor difficulties in adjusting to the routines
of the kindergarten.

Occasionally some destruction of property may result from
children's inability to understand equipment. Children from
poorer homes, for example, may have had less experience with
toys than other children and may consequently need the teacher’s
help in order to learn to play constructively with them. Other
children may be so inhibited at borne that they are veritable
storehouses of aggression, which diey try to release at sdnool by
fighting everything and everybody.

Perhaps the teacher %vill need to give these children special
help in imderstanding bow some of the equipment in the Idnder-
garten works so that they will not experience fnisliation in trying
to use it She may have to partidpate with these children occa-
sionally until they leam how to play constructively with the toys
and uith other children. For children who come to school svith
pent-up aggression, she may have to provide spedal play mate-
rials which permit them to work out their problems. Painting at
the easel may help; pounding or kneading clay may be the
ans^ve^. Possibly vigorous outdoor play will help to get the child
on an e'l'en keel. More than one kindergarten teacher has solved
this problem by providing a punching bag so that children can
vent their hostile feelings without harm to themselves or others.

In some groups, a few children tray be hesitarit to participate
in grtmp dramatic play. A skillful teacher can help such a child
by making a spcciEc suggestion about how he can contribute to
the Bctirity. Perhaps be would like to be the ticket taker for the

172 Teadiing the Kindergarten Odld

"train ride"; perhaps he a>uld be the man who delivers groceries
to the "family" in the playhouse comer. Usually, once a dilld
I>as had some success in a dramatic-play situation, be will con-
tinue to participate.

Play Materials

Because individual chddrea differ so widely— in capacities,
in rates of growth, In Attitudes, achievements, and background—
their play needs also cliiler widely. Materials for children’s play
must be provided in sufficient variety and quantity to take
account of these differences and to ciercise all the growing skills
of the kindergartner.

It is difficult to say exactly how much equipment the kinder-
garten should haw. If the group does not have sufficient play
equipment, however, quarreling may result os cliildren compete
for available to)'s and materials, or because some of the children
arc unoccupied and therefore ready for 'mischief.* On the other
hand, too much equipment can alM be undesirable. If children
are presented with tluce or four alternative play materials, they
con usually settle down to constructive activity with one. But if
they have too many choices, they may be so overwhelmed by
die possibilities that confront them that they arc unable to focus
their attention on one piece.

Blocks ore probably the most useful and most used equip-
ment in the kindergarten because tliey lend themselves to so
many types of activity, depending on the developmental level of
the child. Tlie two-year-old piles them aimlessly; the Bve-year-old
uses them purposefully to build a store or house vvhidi dien
becomes the basis for dramatic play. In outdoor play, blocks, in
combination with other building materials, ore used both for
construction and for dramatic play. Indoors, somewhat miaJler
blocks arc used. Blocks can be arranged as a house, a store, tables
and chairs, a train, a space ship, a coal mine— anytliing die fertile
imaginations of chiidren conceive them to be. In a study of chil-

Pby and Games 173

dren’s preferences in play materials, Farwell ^ found that blodcs
ranlced first in popularity, with girls ns well as boys, not only
among constructive materials but among all indoor playthings.
Van Alstyne ' also found that blodcs were highly preferred as
play materials by most children aged two to five years. All kinds
of blocks are used in the kindergarten— hollow, solid, big, small.
They may be of virtually any size or shape— square, oblong, cres-
cent, eta Hollow blocks, of course, are lighter, but a fmv solid
and relatively heavy ones should be provided to stabilize con-
structions and to give children exercise in using the large muscles.

Children use almost any av’aOable material in their dramatic
play. A dress-up box full of discarded adult clothing or other
garments suitable for use os costumes can stimulate much dra-
madc activity.

In addition to its otiter values, play can help children build
healthy bodies. Because much of the equipment needed for large-
muscle development requires a great deal of space, and because
playing In the open air helps diildren develop good health, as
much as possible of the child’s play should be carried on out of
doors. Vigorous outdoor play on the fungle gym and other climb-
ing apparatus improves the child’s muscular control— an important
goal of the kindergarten— and may, in addition, have emotional
values. Young children sec the world from the underside of many
things; climbing to the top of the gym and being able to look
down on the world of “gianls” can bring the child great emotional
satisfaction,

Althou^ some kindergartens in the Northern states have
indoor jungle gyms, such equipment is best used outdoors if
climatic conditions permit Some kindergarten teachers prefer
wooden to metal gyms because the rungs are usually larger and
less slippery than those on metal gyms and therefore are safer

'' L. Farwell, "Reactions of Kindeigaiteo, First- and Second-Grade Children
to Constructive Play Materials," Cenetfe ftycliohgy Monographt, 1930,
No. 8, pp. 431-562.

“ D. Van Alstyne, Fhy Behacior and Choice of Play Materials of Preschool
Children, Chicago, Univeisily of Chicago Press, 1932.

174 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

for the child’s unsteady footiog’. Wooden gyms, however, ^e less
durable.

On the playground there should bo other apparatus on which
children can climb as well as walking boards, large balls, a sand
pile with some digging tools, large hollow blocks, a seesaw, and
a slide. Often a small playhouse is part of the outdoor play
facilities. Especially valuable are materials which can be climbed
On, piled on one another, or carried about, such as bores, nail
kegs, long boards, barrels, orange crates, wooden boxes of all
kinds, tubs of varying sizes, and ladders, wooden and rope. These
materials offer opportunities for imaginative and dramatic play
in addition to vigorous exercise.

Next to blocks, Farv,rell foimd that among kindergartners
the favorite indoor playthings are painting and modeling mate-
rials. Drawing and cardboard construction materials rank next,
and paper construction and sewing materials are the least popu-
lar. Van Alstyae found that blocks, dolls and doll houses, sod
clay, in that order, appeal strongly to most children aged two
to five; that four-year-olds show greater interest than bvo-year-
olds in balls, beads, small cars, and sdssors; and that five-year-
olds show increased interest in crayoning.

Some materials appear to offer more opportunity tor social-
ization than others. Dolls. %vagons, and blocks encourage co-
operative play; easel paints and clay encourage more solitary
play. Van Alstyne reports that certain materiab have ^li^er
conversation values than odiers. Tlie doll-comer, block play,
and crayoning rank high while paintiag aod tvork tvith scissors
and books rank low in conversation value.” ' Both kinds of
material should be part of the well-equipped kindergarten.

There appear to be some sex differences in play interests,
even at the age of five. Boys are more likely to prefer big-muscle
activities than are girls, although they too enjoy quiet activity
occasionally. And girls are, as we have mentioned, 5ome^vhat

* Comioittee of National Conferraces of Research in English, Readiness fot
Reading and Related Language AiU, CSiicago, 1950, p. 36.

Piay and Games 175

more proficient with materials requiring manual dciteril)', such
as scissors. This difference may be due to cultural expectations,
however, rather to innate factors; therefore, no sex lines
should be drawn in proriding materials or making su gg estions
for their use- Both boj'S and ^Is should have opportunities and
encouragement to csiry on a wide range of actirities. Girls should
be encouraged to experiment and play widi hamm er and nails,
and boj-s should be p'*en the opportunitj- for doH play. Children
play with little concern for the so-called femininity or masculinity
of these activities unless adults make them cotrsdoiis of it

Play equipment for young children should generally be
simple and it must ah^’aj's be safe. It must also offer some chal-
lenge to the user. It should not be so complicated that it discour-
ages the chil d or so simple that it offers no stimulus to thought.
The habit of success in dealing with materials is important in
encouraging the child to try out new ideas. The four* or five-
yeaz<ld is a N’eiy inventive b^g, but at times he may need
help in exploring the possibilities of equipment whidi has lost
its appeal The introduction of some makeshift materia] to expand
the potentialities of existing eqoipment may serve the purpose
as well as new equipment To children who have lost interest
in the trapeze bar, for example, a rope suspended from the bar
is a "new” piece of equipment The children can now cdimb in a
new way. Long bcrards propped on the lower rungs of die jungle
gjm will stimulate new ideas for its use, and a few discarded
nail kegs added to the blocks will produce new interest in
building.

Comes

Because most four- and fi>‘e-year-olds are not sufficiently
mature to remember more than a very few directions at a time,
games for the kindergarten duld should be \-ety simple and
loosely organized. Highly competiti%*e games should be a^'oided
in the kindergarten because such games inTOlve losing, which is

178 Teadiing the Kindergarten Child

a blow that this age child finds difficult to weather. Games in
which the entire group can participate have more appeal than
those which require most of the diildren to remain inactive while
only a fe%v perform! children are eager to be participating rather
than watching whenever thwe is activity of any kind. ClTiis does
cot, however, rule out “cirde* games; although such games re-
quire only one or bvo children to be active in the sense of ruiming
or otbenvise engaging in physical movement, the rest of tlje
group is usually more active than mere description of the game
would lead one to expect. \Vhen one clrild is chasing another,
for example, as ia "Duck, Duck, Goose,' the children who form
the circle usually jump up and dmvn, shouting and wriggling
^vitll anticipation and excitement)

Games in the kindergarten should not demand skills which
the "fours' and "fives" have not yet mastered. Singing games, or
simple action games which have been set to music, have a special
appeal for kindergarten bc^ and girls, probably because of the
simple rhythm and repetitive rhyming, which always seem to
interest children.

The simple games described below are usually successful
in the kindergarten and may be played, in one variation or
another, either indoors or outdoors. Most of them require no
equipment or, at most, a whistle, bell, or ball

1 . Squirrel in the Trees-Children form a circle, counting
o0 by threes. Each pair of "ones' and "threes' holds
lionds, with children fadng each other to form a "tree."
Even numbers are "squirrels." Each tree holds a squirrel,
but one or more squirrels ore xvithout trees. On a si^al,
each squirrel must find a new tree. The extra squirrels
compete, as in musical chairs, so that after each "change"
a new set of squirreb is left treeless. Children take turns

>*Fxt>ra Jessie II. Bancroft. Carnet for the floygraund. Hone, School and
Gvmnasium, New York, Macioin»ii, IS13; Margaret E. Ntubc and Marian
S. Hotines, The School Came Book, New York, Harper, 1950; and Haael
Richardson, Garnet for Etementarjf Grades, MinneapoBs, Burgess, 1048.

Play and Games 1 T 7

being trees and squirrels so that all ^vill liave tlie expe-
rience of being both in eadi period of play.

2. Animal Trap— Half the group Joins hands in a circle to
form the "trap." The otltcr half, who are the “animals,"
are outside the circle. When the child designated as the
"hunter” signals, the “animals" run through tlic circle.
^Vhen the hunter pves a second signal, all animals still
inside the circle are "trapped" and must join the circle.
Tlie game continues untd all animals are trapped. Tlie
last child to be caught becomes hunter for the next game.
Trappers become animals so that all children have both
experiences.

3. Tag— One child, chosen as "it," chases the other children.
^Vhen a child is tagged he becomes "it" and in turn
chases the others. (A safety zone is designated in which
children who have run a great deal may rest svithoul
being caught.) Variation o— Children slap, gallop, or hop
instead of running. "It" uses the same method of locomo-
tion as the children he is pursuing. Variation b—“h* tries
to step on a child’s shadow instead of tagging him. The
child whose shadow has been stepped on then becomes
“it"

4. Duefc, Dvck, Goose— Children form a circle and sit do\vn,
being careful that their hands and legs are out of the
way of running children. One child, chosen to be “it,”
taps the heads of the seated children, sa>'ing, "duct
duck.” If "it" says “goose” as he taps a child's head, the
goose must ctme him around the circle, trying to catch
him before he gets back to the gooses vacant place. If
“it” succeeds in reaching the vacant place in the circle,
the goose becomes “it" and the game continues. If “it”
is caught, he goes into the middle of the drde, -where
he is to be "roasted” for a feast at the end of the game,
and another “it” is chosen. At the end of play, children
remaining in the cirde “feast" on the roast geese in the

178 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

center. The teadier needs to guide children in tliis game
so that aH children have a turn to be “it."

5. ThrouJ Bali— Children stand in a line, facing one diild,
who holds a ball, at a distance of six to ei^t feet. (If the
group is large, children fonn a circle and the leader
stands in the middle.) The leader throws the ball to a
diild who throws it back to him. He throws to another
and the game goes on so that each child has a turn. If
the leader does not catdi the ball, another leader is
chosen. This game should be played in a small group
so that the children have a chance to be leader often.
Variation— The leader rolls or bounces the ball to the
players rather than throwing it.

6. Dodge Bali— Children fonn a cirde and the leader, in the
center, tries to liit the feet of a child in the drde by
roUiog or bouncing a ball When a child’s feet are hih
he becomes the leader.

7. Bun, Rabbit, Run— About three quarters of the players
are “rabbits" and the remaining children “foxes." One
end of the playing area Is designated as the rabbits’ home
space, the opposite end is “garden," and the area
in betiveen is “woods," where the foxes roaz». At the
signal “Run, rabbit, nui," the rabbits must run home
from the garden through the woods. A rabbit who is
tagged by a fox before he reaches home becomes a fox
and assists in tagging other rabbits in their s&Tt venhire
into the woods.

8. Circle Tag— Children fonn a circle. One child, chosen as
“it," stands outside the drcle. Three children are chosen
to try to get into the drde without being tagged by “it.”
The child tagged first becomes “it." If no one is tagged
the first child is “it* again.

9. Hunter— One child, chosen os tlie “hunter," says, "Who
would like to go hunting with me?" Children respond
"I would," and fall in line behind the hunter, who is free

Flay and Carnes 179

to lead tliem about in any designated area. The followers
do everydiing the hunter does. NVhen he shouts “Bang,"
the children must return to their seats (or to a designated
“safe area"). The first diild to get bad; to his seat or
safe area becomes the next hunter.

10. Old Mother Wlfcfi— Hio child chosen as “witch” stands
within a marked area at one end of the play space. The
children’s “s^e" area is marked at the opposite end of
the play space. The children run Into the witch’s area
calling:

Old Mother Witch
Fell io a ditch
Pided up a penny
And thought she was ridi.

The witch keeps asking them, "Whose children are you?"
They answer giving any name, but when they say
"Yours " the witch gives chase. Anyone tagged by the
witch before reaching die safe area becomes the witch
and the game conUnues.

11. Circus Game— ’The group forms a cirede, with a cliild
chosen as ringmaster in the middle of the circle. He
pretends to snap a whip and as he does so names some
animal. All children imitate the animal mentioned. ’The
game ends with a circus parade in which each child
imitates the animal of his choice.

12. Crossing the Stream— A “stream" is marked off by two
chalk lines draivn two feet apart. Children line up and
take a running jump across the "water." If they succeed
in clearing bath lines they take a standing jump back
across the stream. Unsuccessful children go to the end
of the line to try the running jump again. Increase the
distance for childroi who are successful in the standing
jump.

ig. Call Boff— Children form a cirde with one child in the
center. He tosses die ball and as he throws it calls the

180 Teaching the Eindergarten Child

name of any cliild In the c&c!e. Ihe child whose name
is called tries to catdi the ball immediately after its first
bounce. If he is successful, be takes bis place in tlio
center; if he is not, tJie original tosser continues until the
ball is caught.

Countless variations of the games listed above can be de-
veloped— and the kindergarten cliild seems to respond to these
variations as entliusiastically as to the “original."

Besides providing for sheer fun, game lime has other values.
TTirough participating in such organized activity, the cliild learns
habits of fair play and good sportsmanship, self-confidence, and
at least some measure of self-discipline in taking turns. Co-opera-
tion is an inte^I part of games in %vhicli, for eramplc, tlie group
is trying to keep a child who is "it" either inside or outside the
circle, If, because a child fails to co-operate, ‘'it” gets out or in,
ns the case may be, the child’s peers will administer the "disci-
pline,” And this, as we have said before. Is a most effective kind
of disdplinet

Playing almost any sort of game helps to sharpen tlie sense
perception of children, but some games do this more effectively
than others. Games and escrcfecs to develop auditory abilities,
articulation, and language abilities arc described in Chapter g,
"Experiences in Language." Games to develop visual and motor
abilities are described in Chapter 28, which discusses the role
of the kindergarten in relation to "readiness."

^'Prea Play"

When children liave adequate equipment and sufficient
space for a variety of play activities, organized games assume
less importance than when equipment and space are Umited.
Nevertlieless, time should be provided in every kindergarten
program for some organized play, for the many reasons men-
tioned above. There should be a balance between free play and

Play and Games 181

organized games consistent with the age of the children, their
interests, and the adequacy of the play space and equipment to
which the group has access.

Perhaps the most important consideration in gmding play
for young children is that th^ be ^vcn ample opportunity and
equipment to pursue their many and varied interests and to
develop physically. Children \%^ll play whether adults will it or
not— it is a normal and desirable part of their development In
an earlier day, play was discouraged. Today, the wise teacher
encourages a child’s play activities, because she is asvare that
through play he can develop physically, socially, mentally, and
emotionally.

Troblems for Discussion

1 . It has been said that play is biologically necessary to children.
What does this mean?

3, The characteristics that childreo look for in their friends are dif*
ferent from the ones adults seelc. What are some of the important
factors in a child’s becoming a leader in the group? In an adult’s?
Can you account for this difference between children and adults?
Is this difference a source of conflict between teachers or parents
and children? Cite an Instance of such conflict from your own
experience.

3. Mis. Ford says that she observes the play of her kindergartneis in
order to understand the children better, flow can observation hdp
in this way? ^Vhat can a teacher find out about a group of children
by watchhig them play?

4. la the four-year-old landergarten, limmy is the youngest of the
children, both chronologicaUy and socially. Often bis teaser notices
Jimmy bitting another diild in the kindergarten. A few minutes
later, she sees the two children playing pleasantly together. What
is happening here? How mi^t die teacher hdp Jimmy? At what
stage is he socially? What judgments might you make regarding
Jimmy’s experiential hackgroimd?

5. Young children often like to climb high on the jungle gym so that
they can look down on the adults below. What emotional satisfao-

182 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

(ion do chtTiiren derive from such an experience? Is thu a good
thing for children? Explain.

6. Mrs. ParJeer says tliat teochuig diildren (o caress themselves
linguistically is one of tl>e goals of the Icindergarten. Therefore she
favors use of materials with higli "conversational value." Miss
Davies agrees with Mrs. Parker that the development of language
ability is a u-orthy goal. However, d»e feels that there are times
when children need to pursue activiti^ of a rather solitary rrature.
^Vhat kinds of materials and equipment would Mrs. Parker feel
are most important in her kindergarten? la contrast, with what
materials and equipment would Miss Davies equip her kindergarten
room? With which teacher do you most nearly agree? \Vhy?

7. How docs the quarreling of four- and five-year-olds diHer from that
of three-year-olds? What factors account for tliesc differences? Does
the manner in which four- and five-year-olds quarrel reflect prog-
ress or regression in sodal development? Why do children quarrel
more during Indoor play t)wn during outdoor play?

6. Miss Jadcson says that many diildren show ambivalent attitudes
toward other children. ^Vhat does this mean? Is such ambivalence
"normar In young children? Explain.

9. Mrs. Ilubin spends a good deal of time giving direetioDS and ex*
plaining the rules when she teaches games to the kindergarten
group. In the process, the group becomes restless and Inattentive.
Moreover, the ^dldren seem to li<k enthusiasm for playing the
game when the time comes to play it Mrs. Rubin is puzzled by the
behavior of these four- and five-year-olds. Your knowledge of chil-
dren of this age should help you retognlic tlie reasons for the be-
havior of these children, lloxv would your approach differ when
you teach games (0 children? How much explaining can the kinder-
garten child absorb? Are the rules of the game important to young
children? How is Uiis related to the maturity of the child?

Suggested Additionol Reoding

Frank, Lawrence K., “Play In Personality Development.” American
fonmal of OrihopsychUifn/, 1955, XXV, 576-90.

Harms, Ernest, ‘Play Diagnosis: Prelimmary Considerations for a
Sound Approach.” Nervous ChUd, July ig^S, VII, 333-46.

Hartley, R. E.; Frank, L. K.; and Gddenson, R. M., Understandins
ChUdretrs Vlay. New York, Columbia University Press, 1932.

Play and Games 183

Headley, Neith, “Tie Right Toy for the Right Child at the Right
Tisie.” N. E, A. Journal, December 1951, XL, 641*42.

Kanner, L., "Play Investigation and Play Treatment of Children's
Behavior Disorders." Journal of Pediatries, 1940, XVH, 533-46-

Kepler, H., The Child and Uis Flag: A Planning Guide to Parents and
Teachers. New Yoit, Funk & WagoaDs Co., 1932.

Mitchell, E. D., and Mason, B. S., The Theory of Play. New Toik,
A. S. Barnes & Co., 1948.

Moustakas, C. E., Children in Play Therapy; A Key to Ur^dersianding
Normal and Disturbed Emotions. New York, McCraw-HQl Book
Co., 1953-

Miilac, Margaret E., and Holmes, Xlarion $., The School Game Book.
New York, Harper & Brothers, 1950.

Richardson, Hazel, Gamer for Elementary Grades. Minneapolis, Bur*
gess Publishing Co., 1948.

Van Alstyne, D., Play Beljocfor attd Choice of Play Materials of Pre-
school Children. Chicago, University of CMcago Press, 1932.

Webh, Marian, Comer for Younger Children. New York, W illiam
Morrow & Co., I0&, 1947.

184 Teaching the Elndergaiten Child

I. Social-Studies Experiences

To teach childrea what they need to know about their environ-
ment and to help them grow io the ability to live and work
harmoniously with others axe the objectives of the social-studies
program in the kindergarten. In a sense, these ore the objectives
of all education in a democratic society. But the teacher in the
kindergarten has an especially great opportunity-and obliga-
Uan~to carry them out effectively. For most children, the kinder-
garten is the first esx>crience in living with a group of other
children, outside the secure confines of the family. It is their
first formal introduction to the responsibilities, as well as the
privileges, of participation in society. It is their first opportunity
to leam of the contribution they can make to the group welfore.

If the teacher is to guide social-studies learning effectively,
she not only must know how children grow and leam but also
must understand the society in which they are growing and learn-
ing. The teacher must not only plan for the gro^vth of the children
but also “grow" continually herself, so that she can meet the needs
of children in a rapidly chan^g world. This means that the
teacher must keep informed about developments in technology,
about national and international affain, and about the many
issues, events, and problems on the local community level that
are reflected in and influent her pupils' viesv of the world.

J85

The Social-Studies Curriculum

The social studies fonn a natural core around which all other
activities revolve. There is actually little in the curriculum of the
kindergarten that does not relate in some way to this, area. Dis-
cussing measles may be classified ns a health activity, but as soon
as we mention the possibility of conla^on, the health discussion
takes on the aspect of soda! studies. Talking about electricity
is science, but discussing how people use electric power is sodal
studies. A visit to the fire station is great fun for young children,
but if it teaches them sometl^g of how citizens in a democracy
work to help and protect one another, it can be defined as social
studies. Learning to take turns in using equipment on the play-
ground helps to solve the problem of limited facilities, but it also
teaches children an invaluable lesson in group living, and there-
fore is part of their social'Studies educatioa.

The sodal studies thus are intunately related to every activity
in the kindergarten. It is perhaps for this reason that mudi Idnder-
garten teadiing in fhls area is inddental and that some teadiers
feel little planniag is necessary. To be sure, children will continue
to grow socially whether we plan for it or not, but little real sodal
understanding will result from haphazard teaching. On the other
band, it is not desirable to adhere firmly to a preconceived pat-
tern of teaching the sodal studies to young children. As Use
Forest ' points out, the sodal-studies curriculum in the kinder-
garten needs protection from two opposing dangers. In some
schools, there is Tack of coherence aiMl definite objectives result-
ing from too little planning." In others, one sees a "reversion to
the old dry-as-dust course of study in modem dress through a
formal, stereotyped description of units or arbitrary assignments,
by supervisory officers, of activities to be carried on in each
grade."

Fortunately, most schools fall somewhere in between these
t^vo extremes, with some experiences being prescribed by a

* Ilse Forest, Early yean at Schott, Hew Tort, McCraw-Ilill, 1949, p. 167.

186 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

coiirse of study or other authority and others left to the discretion
of the teacher. Needless to say, the teacher should base her choice
on the interests and needs of the chUdren.

Some teachers see to it that all their Jdndergartners have
experiences centering about a drcus or a farm. There is little to
support this practice. However, there is certain information
which all children need to team. Every kindergartner, for exam-
ple, should learn something about the rules of safety, and the
teacher who is conscious of her obligations to teach children
about this important aspect of group living will try to build a
“center of interest” around safety. Only the interests of the Idn-
dergarten group will determine where such an activity can even-
tually lead. Sensitive teachers find that the explorative minds of
young children force tliem to reach out in many directions in
the social studies— toward science and the arts, reading and num*
bers-into any and all areas of learning.

Social education in the kiodergarten should be somewhat
informal, but not unplanned. Because the attention and interest
span of Idndergartners is brief, for four- and five-year-olds, long,
elaborate units are out of place. The social-studies program can
provide a better learning situation if there are many short-term
units related to dominant centers of interest rather than a few
long-term units. In fact, more than one center of interest may
hold the attention of the group at one time. In teaching subjects,
such as the safety rules, in which all children need instruction,
the teacher will want to involve the entire group, hut in most
instances not all children need to be concerned with the same
activity.

The goals in teaching young children must be rather imme-
diate; most of them are unable to sustain interest in activities
which give only delayed sadsfacrioo. For this reason units lasting
for more than a few days will fall to challenge most four- and
five-year-olds. At this age few children have an accurate sense
of time. ^Vbat appears to adults to be a short interval may seem
(a them an eternity. Ha»ever, ch^Aca differ in this respect, too;

Sodal-Studies Experiences 187

in any ^oup, one ot two children wUl be capable of sus tain i n g
attention and interest in an acdvi^ over a period of weeks. The
informality of the social'Studies program in the kindergarten
makes it possible to meet the differing needs of all die children.
^Vbile the more mature ^oup pursues its interest in the fire
station or grocery store, other children may become interested
in planting a garden, building a hat store, or countless other
activities.

Living Hormoniously with Others

The kinder gaiten-age idiildis increasingly able to make effec-
tive contacts with those about him. People are becoming increas-
ingly important in his activities. The very young child says, T
^vant someone to play with me.* But by kindergarten age, a new
social concept dawns. Now the child says, *1 want to play with
the other children.* He no longer sees himself purely as an indi-
vidual but is beginning to identify himself with the group. As
Goodenough * puts it, at this age "tbe child’s newly developed
skills and abilities lose some of their individualistic goals and
begin to take on a more socialized character.* The child still
thinks running and jumping are fun in themselves, hut he finds
them still more fun when done with someone else or as part
of a game. With some children, conversations may even begin
to take the form of discussions or exchanges of ideas and infor-
mation.

The kindergarten child is becoming able to modify his be-
havior to coofoim to the needs of the group. In all his actions
and attitudes, he ^ves evidence of the beginning of a group
consciousness. He is trying to teadi out after companionship,
“not simply for amusement, but rather as a means of extending
the range of his own personality. Va^ely but surely he is coming

* Florence Goodenough, DecehpmenS^ Psycholog!/, New Yorlc, Harper,
S943. P. 395-

ISS Teaching the Kindergarten Child

to seo that Ve’ 15 an expression that carries more weight in the
world of affairs than T can ever hope for," •

For most children. Uie first experience in trying to adjust
socially to a large number of other cliildrcn comes at entrance
to school Until this time, the child has been a very important
member of a small and closely knit social group. It is no \vondcr
that many children revert to immature behavior when tlicy ore
first introduced to the larger, more impersonal group in scliool,
in which they are no longer tlie focus of attention. Some children
at this stage even seem to assume diifcreDt personalities at school
A child who is aggressive at liome may become meek and retiring
in the sdioolroom; a cliild who is submissive in bis home situation
may suddenly become aggressive when he enters the kinder-
garten. This apparently radical change in behavior and person-
ality may be the child's attempt to meet a new and disturbing
situadon which tlireatens Ills previous adjustment.

Unless precautions ore taken to make the step from home
to scliool os easy os possible, the child's sense of security may be
seriously endangered. The tcaclicr who understands how great
ore the demands Uiat this step makes on the child, who tries to
contributo to lUs feeling of bclon^gncss, can avoid many prob>
Icms of bcliavior and discipline. Insecurity and the feeling of
''strangeness” provide a fertile field in wJiich fears may develop.
Tliis wise teacher will help the child to see that tlic world of tlis
kindergarten is a friendly place.

Adjusting to sodal situations is a matter of learning and
habit fonnation on Uio part of tlie child. The scliool can do much
in tills area. And because, in today's complex world, we arc all
dependent upon others for our welfare, comfort, and happiness,
it is extremely important that the school help tlie cliild grow in
his sodal understandings.

In working with )-ouDg children, llic tc.'ichcr must have in
mind some ‘standards of expectancy” in the area of sodal dcvcl-

•lUd.

Social-Studies Experiences ISO

opment Tliere are wide individual differences here as in all areas
of development, and some cluldren need mudi more time to work
out their problems of social adjustment th.'in others. If guidance
is to be effective, however, the teacher must be aware of se-
quences of development, and she must have standards based on
an understanding of the nature of duldren and of the individual
child. Otherwise too much or too little may be demanded of the
child for his stage of development As a rule, the mature and
capable child can solve his social problems with relatively little
guidance from adults. The less mature and less capable cduld
needs more guidance and often more control.

The socially vvell-adjusted kindergarten child is considerate
of others, co-operative, and sympathetic. He is not sulky or
jealous, and is usually at ease in bis relationships with adults.
"He is a self-assured, confonning citizen in his Idndergarten
world. . , . He accepts the sodal scheme.* *

However, because he is immatiffe, the Idndergartner often
has difficulties in relationships with his age mates. Even the
happiest of children gets into trouble when his needs and the
social pattern ccnffict As we have pointed out in an earlier
chapter, Idndergarten children quarrel with others less frequently
than )’Ounger children do, but nevertheless conflict takes place
fairly oftexL The quarreling that gpes on in any group is a neces-
sary part of social development; it represents a forward step in
learning to get along with others. The child is still at a stage of
trial and error, but he has advanced somewhat be}-ond the stage
of relying exclusively on physical violence to settle his problems.

Growth in social living is a slow process, with many regres-
sions to earlier modes of behavior all along the way. But under-
starrding adults allow childsen plenty of time to grow from one
stage of maturity to another. They do not subject children to
adult standards before they are able to accept them. Fortunately,

* Amcitd Gesell and Fiances Pg, InfatA and Cfuld in Iht Culture of Todcf/,
Kew "icA. Harper, 19+3, pp. 3^, 3 S 4 -

190 Teaching the Kindagaitea CjiOd

tile cliild's development is always toward increasing matiuity in
the ability to handle situations involving social relationships. As
ho grows older, regressions become fewer, and tlie child becomes
more truly a ‘‘socialized'* being.

Social development and adjustment cannot proceed in a
vacuum; the kindergarten must provide an atmosphere conducive
to growth in tliis area. It can do so throu^i a well-plaimed pro-
gram of work and play in which diildren are given freedom and
opportunity to express their ideas, a chance to plan, and respon-
sibility for carrying out their plans and evaluating tlie results.
In such an atmosphere, children leam to recognize and face the
problems of living with others, to plan how to solve their prob-
lems, and then to attempt a solution. In this manner the kinder-
garten helps the child to become independent and concerned
with the needs of others.

In the process of social development, Uie ideas that the child
develops about himself are extremely important because they
determine to a great extent his interpersonal relationships. His
rekdonships with others, in turn, greatly aHect this ‘self concept**
If a child does not like himself, he will probably be imable to
like others. If a child believes himself unworthy of the respect
of bis patents and tcacitcrs, he may become quite unable to
respect others.' A circle of cause and effect operates: the child's
concept of himself also helps to determine how he relates to
otliers. If the cliild lias developed an unsatisfactory picture of
liimself, he will probably havo difficulty in his relationships with
others. This difficulty in tura reinforces his unsatisfactory self
concept, whicli, in its turn, increases his inability to get along.

As the child matures he conies to take on toward himself the
attitudes that others liold toward him. His self concept comes to
mirror the responses that other people make to him, and this
selT concept continues throughout life. However, English ♦ points

* Horace EogL'sh, Child Ptychohgif, New York, Holt, 1951, p. 439.

•Ibid,

Social-Studies Experiences 191

out, though the child’s \iew of himself is “social* to the exteat
that it largely reflects the teactioos of others to him, it is still
unique, since it is based upon all such reactions that he as an
indi\idual lias experienced in social living.

The child begins to develop a self concept during the pre-
school years. At this time^ therefore, he needs much help and
guidance in his social relationships. The teacher plays an impor-
tant role in the process of socialization by helping children to
discover their resources and limitations. She is the central figure
in countless situations which can help the learner to understand
and accept himself or which can bring humiliation, shame, rejec-
tion, and self-disparagemcnL She can assist the child in his social
development both by direct teadung and by providing the kinds
of environment in which desirable social behavior can develop.
\Vhen the teacher helps the child to succeed in what he is doing
she is helping him to develop concepts of a successful self. If
she continually subjects the child to situations in which he expe-
riences only failure, she may reinforce his already developed
concept of an unsuccessful self. The fint method helps the ohild
to develop a picture of himself as a worthy member of his
group. The second increases the x)ossibility of failure and de-
velops within the child a self concept which makes him feel alien
to the group.

Tire social-studies activities of the Idndergaiten can help the
child to achieve personality integration, social intelligence, and
sensitivity by providing an educational program so designed that
living in school becomes democracy in practice. The social-studies
activities in die kindergarten curriculum oSer the best opportu-
nity for developing sodal skills and attitudes because in this area
content, process, and techniques are integrated. Children do not
learn how to live with others bannoniously and comfortably by
talking about it or by listening to the teacher talk about it; rather,
they leam through a program of experiences in which they meet
and solve problems democratically in a group situation. In these

192 Teaching the Kindergartoi Child

experiences as a functioning group member, the child Icams the
reactions of others to his own behavior and has many oppor-
tunities for developing social sensitivity. We shall have more to
say about developing the ability to live with others in Chapter
13 , “Leaming the Ways of Democtacy."

Learning About the Environment

Research on how children develop gives us clues as to how
the scliool can help the child to leim about the social aspects
of his enviromnent. We know that the needs and interests of the
very young child are intensely narrow and personal. He cannot
comprehend much beyond his own immediate environment. The
young child enters school v^th a very limited understanding of
the physical world and the world of people, and this he has
acqtiired in his home and in the limited play experiences he has
had before eorotling in die Idndergarten. The sodaJ*studies pro-
gram begins where the child is-with experiences centered around
the family, the neighborhood, and the community. The goal 0 /
die program is to clarify the problems of living and. especially,
to help the child understand his role in zehtionslup to the group.

The neighborhood is the first social-studies laboratory for
children. They identify themselves with the workers in their en-
vironment— the fireman, the postman, the milkman. Everything
that moves catches their interest— the airplanes that ily overhead,
the train they see racing by, the automobiles passing through the
street. Social-studies experiences are concerned with these aspects
of contemporary life, on the child's level of understanding.

Tlie j’oung child has great interest in the people about him,
especially adults. Tliis interest is a potent force in his socialization
and learning to understand the world about liiin. Children are
constantly assuming adult roles and imitating die activities in
which they see adults engaged. This tendency accounts for much
of the dramatic play of kindcrgaitncrs and provides the basis for

Social-Studies Experiences 103

many centers o£ interest of a social-studies nature. After a train
ride, for example, children come bade to the kindergarten eager
to draw a train, to construct one out of blocks, to sing a “train
song," to play engineer. When the child is engaged in this mean-
ingW and purposeful activity, “he thinks actively, he solves prob-
lems, he talks vigorously, he reacts intelligently, and he gains new
concepts."’ Imitation thus becomes an important method of
learning.

Excursions

Trips into the community play an important part in the
social-studies program, for they ^ve children first-hand experi-
ences with many aspects of the eaviromnent of interest to them,
What is perhaps more important, they also take advantage of the
role the community can play in the education of the child.
Modem philosophies of education emphasize the responsibility
of the school to acquaint children %vith their environment: but
the community can itself become an educative force, a workshop
for the school

School-sponsored excursions ^ve children an opportunity to
explore and study local resources which cannot be brought into
the classroom. By visiting and discussing the fixe station, the post
oifice, the grocery store, or the shoe shop, the child learns how
people are dependent upon one another, how each person con-
tributes to the welfare of the group by his work. Four- and five-
year-olds usually do not come to school with this information;
the policeman at the comeris the only representative of organized
society most children of kindergarten age know. Excursions
through the community arranged by the school as well as those
he makes by himself should also help the child to develop con-
cepts concerning property and property rights, and should make
all aspects of his eaviromnent increasingly meaningful to him.

’ Soctii ^.dueatlon of Young ChiUrm, Cuirlculum Series No. 4, Wasbiogton,
S. C-> National Coundl for the Social Studies, March 1950, p. ig.

194 Teaching the Eiodergarten Child

Tlie community holds countless potentialities for education
in the social-studies area; the problem is to select those experi-
ences wliich are most appropriate and which will be most reward-
ing for the children.

An excursion Uiat is educationally valuable need not be a
long journey. For the young clutd, it may mean going no further
than around the block to visit a grocery storo or do^vnstai^s to
the school basement to see the furnace room. To the kinder-
gartner in his initial attempts to adjust to school life, excursions
in and around the school may be more valuable than trips to
more distant or unfamiliar places.

The educational value of an excursion depends on how well
it is cliosen, planned, and carried out. An cxx>cricnco of this
kind is wortliwhile only if it teaches somediing. Some tilings are
taught best in tlie classroom; oUicr things can bo taught most
effectively beyond tlie confines of the classroom and Uicreforo
should be taught there. Excursions are valuable if tliey furnish
experiences that are more xvorthwhile and clarify concepts more
effectively than other methods of teaching could do. If the chil-
dren are interested in trains, for example, a trip to tlie local rail-
road station will answer their questions more fully and accurately
Uian any other activity. To introduce kindergartners to the world
of books, a “visit* to the ebssroom library comer, where children
can explore materials with few restrictions, may be more effec-
tive than an excursion to the public library.

Planning a trip can be as valuable a learning experience as
the trip itself. The group ought to discuss what they are going to
see, what they especially wish to find out; perhaps they might
moke up a list of questions wliicli they would like to have
answered. This list should be quite short and simple; it might
6onsist of only one or two questions for immature children and
no more than five or six for older ones. If children ore planning
a trip to a farm, for example they might wish to list such ques-
tions as these:

Social-Studies Experiences 195

^Vhat do cows eat?

\Vhere do the cows sleep?

Who milks the cows?

Do pigs cat tlie same food as cows?

^Vhat land of a house do chid:ens live in?

Making up such a list not only helps the children to organize
their thinking but also demonstrates one of the funcdons of
\vritten symbols. (As we have pointed out, any \vTiting the
teacher does should be in manuscript since that is the land of
writing children will be expected to do in first grade.)

Croup behavior should also be discussed before the trip.
Some teachers provide tiioe for such discussion a few days before
the trip and then have a brief '’review'* shortly before the actual
departure. Most kindergarten children are eager to co-operate,
but they forget their responsibilities easily. And a few children
may need special help in leaning bow to act in a group situation.
Children are capable of giving good suggestions on how to make
a trip most comfortable and worthwhile. If the group will be
walldog, they may suggest that a few responsible children be
appointed as *h3ck captains'* whose job it is to keep an eye on
stragglers. (The teacher, of course, >vill not depend entirely on
cluldren to carry out such a job, because the welfare of children
is her concern. But children can help.) The group may suggest
that each child choose a partner with whom to walk side by side
so that the line does not become too long. The group may even
wish to appoint a few children to remind those who forget to
adhere to some of the rules that they have set for themselves.

Often parents of Idodergaiten children are %vUling to help
the teacher either by looking after children on the trip or by
providing transpoi^tioa. Teachers should make sure that parents
are aware of the liabilities involved when they offer to transport
children. Specific liability laws vary somewhat &om state to state,
but it is clear that no one should be allowed to transport children
unless be is a careful and experienced driver and carries sufficient

196 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

insurance to protect all parties in the event of an accident. Teach-
ers who transport children also may bo held liable in an accident
if it can be proved that they were negligent However, in states
wldch have “guest statutes,* persons riding as guests without
sliaring expenses %vith the driver or paying him in any way cannot
recover damages in an accident, except in “extreme cases.* •

If children are being taken tltrougli an industrial plant, obvi-
ously extreme care should be exercised to prevent accidents. Tlie
children should form small groups for the excursion and one or
more teachers, plus a qualified company employee, should accom-
pany each group. In conducting excursions, as in other super-
visory situations, the tcaclier has Ute legal obligation to exercise
“reasonable care* to prevent injury to pupils in accidents.*

In fixing liability, some states distinguish between two types
of excursion. A visit to a commcrcia) enterprise may be beneficial
to children in the sense that it teadtes them something concerning
the operation of the enterprise; it may also be of benefit to tlie
host organization because it constitutes good advertising and
builds good will. For this reason, duldreo are often given “sam-
ple” icc-acam cones at a creamery, for example, or cookies at a
bakery. On the other hand, a group may make a visit from which
no one other tlian the diildren benefits. A visit to the police station
or to the post office may be classified in this second category.
In the first instance the children are considered “invitees to whom
the host Organization owes reasonable care as to their safety.*
In the second, the host organization has no obligation to the
children except the obligation to eliminate hazards which might
endanger them.**

Permission, preferably in writing, should be obtained from

'Robert Ib Hamilton. RIglUa and BespontibilHiea of TeacJtera, Laiamie,
Wy., School L.3W Publications, 1956, p. 40.

* Ibid^ pp. 37-33. Legally, the teacher can be held liable for any negligence
on her part. However, there have been no cases in which attempt was
made to recover damages from tiie teacher; all such suits have involved
attempts to recover dai^ges from the host organization.

“ Ibid., p. 38.

Social-Shidies Experiences 197

parents before taking children on a trip of any length. Sending
a letter home serves the double purpose of telling parents about
the activity and at the same time requesting their pennission for
their child to participate. Althou^ these slips may have little
or no legal significance, they at least are a written record that
the parent kne^v where his child was going. Memories are fallible
things, and permission sboxdd not be sought by telephone or in
casual conversation. The teacher should keep permission sb'ps
on file for some time in <ase any questions arise after the trip.

School principals also need to know where children are. The
teacliec should discuss the ezeuruonwith the administrator before
making final plans and, just before departure, should give him
a record of the trip, the mode of tnmsportation, and the names
of children partidpatiog.

If the group leaves from the school grounds, it is customary
to rehuD the children there after the trip, even if their return is
after school hours. Needless to say, parents should be informed
about the time of return so that they can come for their children,
and no teacher should leave the school grounds until all children
have been taken home.

Any excursion that is worth taking is worth the expenditure
of time for some follow-up activities. The learnings resxilting
from the trip should be applied to the problem which inspired it.
For kindergarten children, foUow-up might take the form of a
discussion eventuating in some expiessional activity, such as
painting, drawing, clay modeling, building, or dramatic play con*
cerned with some phase of the experience. After a visit to a
chicken hatchery, for example, children may want to make their
own picture book of the tr^, horn the time of leaving the kinder*
garten until their return. Mature children may compose a simple
one'line “story* and ask the teacher to write it under their pic-
tures. Then they may put all the pages together in proper
sequence and place their book in the library comer so that they
can refer to it along with their other books. These activities \vill
help children to clarify their ideas about the trip and to refresh

19S Teaching the Kindergarten Child

their njemories— for example of wlut the incubator looked like
or what color the chicks wi^e. Expressional activities can thus
be an excellent means of maHag excursioas meaningful educa-
tional experiences.

ifany other valuable learmng activities may be inspired by
excursions. A trip to the harbor, for example, might inspire
children to construct a boat; a trip to the fire station may call
for building a fire station and tiudc in the kindergarten. Fart of
the group may wont to do some buildmg and others may prefer
to contribute in some other way. While some children are con-
structing a grocery store, others may “mate' money, paint signs,
or mold fruit from clay or papier miche. All these activities are
ways of consolidating and increasing the children's rmderstand-
ings of their social world.

Holidays

The celebration of holidays is an important activity in the
kindergarten. Some schools, in fact, liave instituted wliat amounts
to a “holidays-and-seasons curriculum, which combines the skills
with some attention to what children in general are assumed to be
interested in." Perhaps the chief value of this activity in the
kindergarten is that it is immensely enjoyable for children. But
it has other values as welL

Holidays and seasonal observances provide excellent oppor-
tunities for creative activity of all kinds. On Valentine's Day and
at Cluistmas the cliildrcn make cards and gifts for their families
and friends. At Halloween they plan and sometimes make their
costumes—and have the added fun of dressing up. And every
holiday and seasonal change provides ideas for redecorating the
kindergarten room.

The celebration of holidays, even birthdays, also provides
an excellent opportunity for teaching children certain social

Homs Cans, Celia Steadier, utd May, Teazling Young Children,

Yonkers. N. Y., World Book, 1952, p. 81.

ScKaal^tudies Experiences 199

values and conventions. Tkrou^ planning parties, room decora-
tions, and other holiday activities children learn to co-
operate in carrying out group ^uls. They also learn the roles of
host and guest By participating in the celebration of national
holidays, the child learns something of our American heritage
and way of life^ he begins to identify himself with customs and
traditions that are understood by everyone he knows. He begins
to feel that he is part of a larger social group, that he belongs.
And the development of this sense of belonging is one of the
major objectives of tiie sodal-sludies program in tiie kindergarten.

As the child learns some of the customs and institutions
associated with the celebration of holidays, little by little he
Ijegins to abandon his earlier, /^lildiA notions of what makes
things tick in favor of more mature ones. As a sociologist, he
learns certain attitudes toward property and authority: as an
anthropologist, ho learns that people may differ in color: as an
economist, he learns that we have to have money to make pur-
chases and that not all people have enough money to buy every-
thing they want Little by little the pieces of the mosaic fit
together, with some pieces being discarded as the child sees they
ate misfits."

Holiday celebrations, as the quotation above suggests, also
provide opportunities to teach tolerance, respect for the indi-
vidual, and other democratic values. In any kindergarten group,
there will be some children from homes in which Christmas is not
celebrated and who tlierefore do not wish to participate m the
Christmas activities at schooL The needs of these children can
be met rather easily at the kindergarten leveL Just as in the
ordinary kindergarten day some children pursue an interest in
fire stations in one comer of the room while others color, paint,
or model clay, so at Christmas time children need not be made
to feel “different” because they pursue interests other than those
related to the holiday. Occasionally a problem might arise if a
child whose parents have forbidden bis participation in Christmas
p. aig.

200 Teaching the Eindeigarten Child

activities wants very much to do what other children are doing.
In such a situation, merely taBdng to the parents and giving them
an opportunity to ecxpress their views may help to solve the
problem. Jewish children, who also have a religious festival near
Christmas time, mi^t be encouraged to share their traditions
with the other kindergartners. During singing time children
might learn some of the songs associated with the festival of
Hanukkah as well as traditional Christmas carols. Hamikkali is
also a happy time for children when gifts are exchanged, and
some of the joyous yuletide feelings characterize the celebration
of this Jewish festivaL Foreign-bom parents mi^t be willing to
come to tbe kmdcrgajten to teach the children some of the songs
and customs associated with the celebration of Christmas and
other holidays elsewhere in the world.

The celebration of Christmas provides a real opportunity for
teaching children the satisfaction of real "giving." "Fours" and
"fives" are not too young to save out a dime ordinarily spent for
candy to buy a Christmas gift It might mean much in their social
growth to give a less fortunate child a toy that they like very
much-not a favorite one, because that is too much to ask of such
young childton, but one that they stiU enjoy. Kindergarten teach-
ers usually encourage and provide opportunities and materials
for children to make simple presents for their parents and friends.
A word of caution here-tbe gifts must be simple or they will be
teachcr-made rather than child-made. Not only will tills increase
the teacher's work load at an already busy time, but much of
the real value of such an activity is lost if the teacher does most
of Uie work. Suitable gifts for children to make include such items
as a "matcli sdatcIieT" (sandpaper on a block of wood), a calen-
dar, or a paper weight

Few young children are capable of appreciating tbe full re-
ligious symbolism of Christmas, but its celebration looms large
in the lives of most four- and five->‘car-olds. Kindergarten teachers
are frequently faced mth a problem in deciding whether to take
douTi Christmas decorations when the children leave for vacation

Social-Studies Experiences 201

or to permit them to remain until the school resumes again.
Children usually return to school still so exdted about Christmas
that they may be some>vhat disturbed if the holiday decorations
have been removed. Usually dtildren continue to paint and draw
Christmas pictures long after the lu>liday has passed.

Halloween has an appeal for children that is perhaps out
of proportion to its educational value. Because of the costumes,
pranks, and general fun associated with it, it excites children
more than other special days and perhaps its celebration is
noisier. But even tWs interest can be used effectively in furthering
the child’s development. Discussion of better ways of celebrating
the day, of the need for respecting the property of others, and
of safety in the use of matches for iack-o’-lanteros, and the
creative activity of makiog masks and costumes, carving out a
jack-o* -lanteni, or decorating the classroom for a party all can be
part of Halloween.

Even Idndergartners are able to bring some understanding
to the harvest festival of Thanksgiving, which can be related to
nature study and other activities carried on in the fall of the
year. Four* and five-year-olds do not have the fully developed
sense of time needed to understand history, but they have at least
a vague imderstaoding of tbe past Even young children enjoy
the story of the holiday. If diey cannot appreciate its historical
significance, they can usually find ample reason for thanks in
their own life— thanks for things within their understanding.

Valentine’s Day, although it is not a holiday primatily in-
tended for children, holds great appeal for them and offers many
opportunities for creative work and for sharing. Giving and re-
ceiving valentines is an activity children look forward to eagerly.
However, teachers of young children need to make sure that no
child is left out of the valentine exchange. Most parents are
willing to co-operate; providing each child with a list of the other
children in the kindergarten will generally ensure every child a
valentine. And certainly the teatdier herself should give one to
each child. *11:6 prospect of exchanging valentines often leads to

202 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

an interest in the post office whidi may in turn lead to an excur-
sion and to a new and important center of interest. In this way
the celebration of the holiday can be combined with a very
practical activity.

Although the religious significance of Easter is beyond tlie
understanding of most kindergartcers, they can appreciate the
joy that the springtime season brings. Many centers of interest
can be developed around Easter and spring activities. Planting a
garden, making Easter hats, building a bat store or fiower shop,
painting the bright new &)wers and the Easter bunny, creating
Maypole decorations— all manner of activities can evolve at this
time of the year.

Every holiday, including birthdays, provides an opportunity
for a party. By participating in such an activity, children leom
the roles of guest and host, social sidlis which take on increasing
importance as the child matures.

Many kindergartens make much of birthdays, using the day
to give special recognition to the *1}irthday child' as well as to
teach him his role as host Children whose birthdays come during
the vacation may "choose'* a day for their birthday so that all
have an opportunity to celebrate. Hiis does not mean that the
‘birthday child" must necessarily give a party at school; not all
families are financially able to permit their child to do so. But
an imaginative tcaclier can make the day special by using colored
napkins at the regular lunch tun^ by placing the child's name
on the room bulletin board, or by providing a cake, real or
artificial, so that the ‘birthday diUd' can blow the candles out
as the group serenades him with ‘Happy Birthday."

Parties also provide an opportunity for simple cooking, an
activity which virtually all children, boys as well as girls, enjoy.
Now that various easy-to-use mixes are available, even young
children— under the teacher's guidance, of course— can make hot
cliocolate, cookies, or even a cake. Preparing the food themselves
adds immeasurably to cluldren’s joy in the party.

Whatever the holiday, in the kindergarten, pmparatioa lor

SocUl-Studics Experiences 203

its observance should be brief, and the celebration itself should
be simple. Children of kindergarten age do not really appreciate
many of the elaborate arrangements that are sometimes made for
sudt celebrations; it is often the teadier, rather than her charges,
who enjoys them. It should also be remembered that, although
the symbolism, and legends of festivals, when interpreted

wisely and simply by the teadier, can provide a meaningful
background for the obser\-ance, few kindergartners are capable
of really understanding the meaning of holiday’s. Further, as we
Iiave pointed out, some children come ftt>m homes which are
unsympathetic or antagonistic toward the content of certain
holidays, especially religious festivals. For this reason, as Forest “
remarks, “it seems advisable to present certain of the more impor-
tant fcsti%-als simply for tlic fun and good fellowship which they
have come to represent, and not for the historical, artistic, or
religious \-alucs for which they stand.”

Problems for Discussion

t. Plan an cicunioo ior twenty-five children to the local post oifice
and one to an ice-creara plwt. What diFcrcnces mi^t there be
in planniDg for these trips? How midit legal responsibilities diFcr
in the two situations?

a. hirs. Todd has among her kindergartners an unusually small boy
and an unusually large girl in whose pmscsce she makes such
comments as “Jane is so big and awkward” or ”]im is such a tmy
thing.” How might these remarks damage these children’s self
contepl?

3. It has been said that a 'concept of society” docs not exist in four-
and £\ e-year-olds. What docs this mean? Do you agree with the
sUtemcnl?

4. How would you go about celebrating Halloween in the kinder-
garten? Wliat BCtiviiics might you include?

5. Assume that you are leadiing in a comznuruty where lliere is a
large non-Chrutian population and that tiie motlien base asked
you to Wd a discussion relative to Christmas activities in tlu:

Forest, cp. cit, p. sya.

CDI Teaching the Kindcrgaitea Child

kindergarten. ^Vhat are some of the points you might consider?
Would it be better for you to talk or to let the parents talk? NVhy?

Suggested Additional Reading

Bortle, Mildred, "Five-Year-Olds Accept Responsibility." Childhood
Education, February 1949, XXV, 2S&58,

iDavis, A., Social-Class Infiuences upon Learning. Cambridge, Harvard
University R-ess, 1948.

Harris, Esther K., The Hesponriceness of Kindergarten Children to
the Belieuior of Their Fellows. Monographs of the Society for Re-
search in Child Development, Serial No. 43, Washington, D. C.,
National Research Council, 1948, XI, 2.

Neugaiten, B. L., ''Social Class and Friendship Among School Chil-
dren." American Jaumd of Sociology, 1946. LI, 305-13.

Otto, Henry J., Social Education in Elementary Schools. New York,
Rinehart & Company, loc., 1956.

Social Studies for Children. Washington, D. C., Association for Child-
hood Education International, 1956.

Stendler, Celia D., and Martin, W. E., Iniergroup Education in the
Kindergartert-Frimary Grades. New York, The Macmillan Co., 1953.

Wilcockson, Mary, ed., Social Education for Young Children. Rev. ed..
Washington, D. C., National Council for the Social Studies, Na-
tional Education Association, 1956.

Sodal-Studies Experiences 203

Q» Health and Safety

Many educaton today regard the teaching of health and safety as
an integral part of the social-studies program in the kindergarten.
We have chosen to treat the subject in a separate chapter only
to give greater emphasis to this important part of the kinder'
garten curriculum. Actually, it makes little difference whether the
resulting learnings are labeled "social studies” or "health and
safety.” The important thing is that the school must recognize
Us lesponsihiUty to establish basic attitudes, habits, and skills
regarding health and safety through the daily activities in the
classroom, elsewhere in the sdiool building and on the play-
ground.

The Health Program

The health program in the Idsdergaiten is concerned with
the child's future as well as present state of health, and with his
mental and sodal as well as physical well-being. The kinder-
garten therefore makes a many-pronged attack on problems of
health. Through its various diagnostic services, it tries to identify
health deficiencies early in the child’s life, before they have a
(bonce to develop into permanent disabilities. By providing a
controlled, healthful environment, and by instructing children—

203

and sometimes tbeir parents as well— in the principles of healthful
li\’ing, it tries to lay a foundation for tlie continued well-being
of its pupils.

The Teacher and the Health Frogram

The success of any health program in the kindergarten is
dependent to a great extent on the teacher. In some schools, she
is the person who initiates health activities or performs health
services: in others, she helps the school nurse or physician give
inoculations or medical and dental examinations. Even in kinder*
gartens which have the services of a nurse or physician, tlie
teacher often does at least initial screening for general health,
and for visual and bearing defects. She may also be charged
with the responsibility of measuring the height and weiglit of
children at regular intervals and entering health information on
their cumulative records.

Any program instituted for the health and welfare of children
assigns to the teacher greater responsibility for observing children
than a formal '‘morning inspection” implies. Althou^ such daily
inspection stUl exists in some schools, it has been replaced in
others by an informal and tmobtrusive observation of children
to detect evidences of communicable disease or other illness in
children. If the teacher notices symptoms which In her opinion
indicate that the child needs medical attention, she refers the
child to the nurse or physician.

*11)6 teacher’s observation of children needs to be careful,
accurate, and continuous— throughout the day, week, and school
year. The teacher is perhaps the key person in Uie detection of
deviations from normal health. She knows the children in her
room better than the nurse or the physidan do. Although she is
not qualified to diagnose illness or to prescribe for it, she can
learn to recognize the symptoms of some of the more common
communicable diseases.

Often tlic teacher bears the major burden of dealing mtb

Health and Safety 207

the parents o! children who have physical, mental, or emotional
defects or who are suffering &oin inadequate or insufficient diet
or rest In many instances, it is she who must take the responsi-
bility of persuading the parents to get help for their children
and even of educating them to ffie child’s need for proper food,
rest and medical attention. When children’s parents are rmable
to pay for necessary health services, the teacher very often is the
person through whom commuruty agencies work to supply what
is needed.

Teachers need to become skillful in working with parents;
they need to recognize that to the parent any attempt to change
a child's faulty hahits may be taken as a personal caiticisin, unless
the parent is a port of the changing. In planned conferences or
informal conversations with individual moiheis and fathers, the
teacher may note that 'Tommy seems to die easily" or that "Jane
lias more than her share of colds." Merely giving the parents
an opportunity to discuss the problem will often produce desired
results. If the teacher’s attitude is too impersonal and aloof,
parents may be reluctant to co-operate. But if she bears in mind
Uiat some parents have many problems in providing for their
children, and if she \s'orks %vith parents as she does witlr children,
using generous amounts of praise for what the parents have been
able to accomplish, she will establish good reladonships in most
of tlic homes of the children she teaches.

In addition, it is the responsibility of the teacher to plan
sdicdulcs conducive to child health. It is she who plans for
periods of rest and relaxation, for play and other healthful aedvi-
dcs. And. as we have pre\iousIy pointed out, she is also respon-
sible for the general cmodonal climate of the classroom, whicli
con have great effect on the mental health of children.

The Health Status of Klndergortners

Both from special studies of physical defects among school
cluldrcn and from observation, we know that large numbers of

COS Teaching the Kindergarten

children in school today have decayed teeth, defective vision,
hearing, or speech, and borderline malnutrition.

Children come to school with varying concepts and habits
regarding health and safety, depending on the experiences they
have had in their home environment Many uneducated or
foreign-speaking parents are unwilling or unable to provide the
school with adequate health histories. Some families are receiving
inadequate medical attention because of poverty or ignorance;
they may not even know what communicable diseases their ov^m
children have had. Cliildren of such homes may have previously
imdiscovered physical defects— some of a remedial natiuu and
some of such long standing that they may become permanent
handicaps. Families in every income bracket neglect the dental
health of young children.

As Breckenridge and Vincent* point out, the poor physical
condition of low-income children steins from more factors than
their food, shelter, and medical care. The parents of these children
may themselves be suffering from long-term malnutrition and
chronic disease and therefore lad: the vigor and ambition neces-
sary to improve their condition. Some are of relatively low intel-
ligence, which prevents them ixom understanding and providing
for the needs of their children. *Tbe poor physical condition of
children in low-income families may therefore be due to a com-
plex of bereditaiy, nutritional and social factors."

Even at the age of four or five, some children have become
nutritional problems. Many sdiool children, especially those from
low-income families, are not receiving an adequate supply of
vitamins A, B, and C in their diets. Some children have acquired
faulty eating habits not because of their parent/ inability to
provide a well-balanced diet but ticcause they have been allowed
to eat pretty much what they please. One recent survey found
that 40 to 85 per cent of the children studied were deficient in
vitamins, proteins, and other essential food elements. Children

* Marion Breckenridge and E. Lee Vincent, Child Development, Philadel-
phia, Saunders, 195s, p. i87<

Health and Safety 209

from high-income homes were found to be only slightly superior
in dietary habits.*

For children who are inadequately nourished, the school
lunch program may make the difference between an adequate
and an inadequate diet In one dty it was found that 70 per cent
of the children who ate a school lunch had an adequate diet as
against 50 per cent of those who either carried their lunch or
went home for it*

Unless a kindergarten duld is in attendance all day in a
school with a low-cost lunch program, there U little that tlie
school can contribute directly to the malnourished four- or five-
year-old. It can, however, do much to educate parents. This
means helping low-income parents understand how to spend
most wisely the money they have available for food. For all
income groups, it means helping parents to understand the child's
need for certain basic foods in bis diet Many parents— and edu-
cators as well-believe in 'the wisdom of the child’s own appe-
tite,” i.e., that if left to choose his own diet the child will include
all the necessary food elements. This concept has helped parents
leam to treat eating more casuaUy. Unfortunately, however, some
parents tend to forget that the basic food elements must be
available for choice, and that providing too great an abundance
of highly sweetened or ridi foods will take the edge off the
child's 'natural* appetite. Sometimes parents unmttingly teach
children to overvalue candy and desserts by offering them as
bribes for finishing the rest of the meok

Parents may have to be helped to change their own poor
eating habits as well as their child's. They also should be made
to understand the need for making mealtimes pleasant. Many
children, particularly in small famifies, are teased, cajoled, threat-
ened, and othe^^r'ise harassed during meals. The parents become

* Blanche Bobbitt, Progrest Rejmt on Public School Health, Sacramento,
Cabf., CaLfomia State Department o{ Education, April 1956.

• Elizabeth Loclcnxiod, “Educatioiial Implications of f^imcal and Research
Findings in Nutritum,* Journal of School Health, September 1943, XK,
180^5.

210 Teaching the Kiodeigaiteo Child

anxious conceming the duld’s lade of appetite and communicate
tliis amdety to the child— thus actually increasing the problem.

Needless to say, whether or not the child is at school for
lunch, he should be fed if be comes to school hungry. Most
schools are able to mahe some special provision for such children,
and most kindergartens provide juice and crackers or some other
li^t snack during die kindergarten day. This is especially impor-
tant for children in the momiog session because, as we have
pointed out earlier, kindergarten-age children are usually poor
breakfast-eaters.

Some children come to school having had inadequate rest
or sleep. Although there may be wide variations m the needs of
individual children, most fcindergartners require about eleven
and a half to twelve hours of sleep.* This appears to be a greater
amount of sleep than most children get; in fact, children may
actually get less sleep than parente report; since bedtime does
not always coincide with sleepUme.

The rest period provided in most kindergartens about aid'
way through tlie session will help to take care of at least part
of the rest needs of children. Some Idadergaitners will fall asleep
at this time, and If there is a special room for rest, these children
may be permitted to coatinue sleeping after the others have
gotten up. Lacking sudi separate facilities, the kindergarten
teacher can help children who have not had adequate rest by
protecting them from overstrenuous activity during the school
day. The teacher can also help by trying to make parents under-
stand their children's need for rest. In many homes children are
forced to rise early because of the working schedules of other
members of the family, la families with older children, it is
often diiHcuJt to get Idndergartneis to bed at a reasonable hour.
The kindergarten teacher can make parents more aware of the
signs of fabgue in their children, and she can help them to plan
for meeting their children's rest needs.

* Ruth E. Grout, Hatllh Teaching <n ScAooh, Fbiladelpha, Saunders, igss.

P. »93- (Now in revision.)

Health and Safety 211

Teaching Health Principles

Among the major aims of any school health program are
maintaining and improving child health. In order to accomplish
these objectives, the school must recognize die fact that “no child
who has reached the age of reason can be kept healthy and safe
solely by what is planned and done for him. His continued well-
being depends in large part upon what he himself feels and thin ks
and does." * The child himself needs to be educated in healthful
living.

With kindergarten children, as we have pointed out, health
education begins svith the establishment of healthful routines of
living, resting, playing, keeping clean, and eating. Some of these
routines can be established in the Idndeigarten; others call for
the co-operation of parents. Health education also involves im-
parting certain infonuation to children to change their behavior.

Education, in health as in all other areas, begins “where the
cldld is“ in his understandings, with material drawn from his
own daily life. The state of New Jersey suggests the following
espeiienccs as opportunities for introducing learnings in health
in Idodergarten and elcroeotary school: *

1. Health praminaHnn^ in scfaool, including Weighing and
measuring.

2. Epidemics of childhood diseases, colds.

3. Quarantining of children became of illoess.

^ Vaccinations, inoculalioos.

g. Illnesses or operations.

6. Going to the dentist.

7. Need of some children for glasses.

8. Misixdormation in advertisements, e.g., in advertisements
of patent medicines.

* George WTualky tad Grace llallock. Ueohh ObstwaSUm of School Chil-
dren, New York, McCraw-lhll, 1951, p. 10.

* Building CirizcTu/ilp in 0 Democnicy Through the Social Studiee, Elcmcn*
taiy School Bulletin No. row TFenton. N. J., Dcpaitrocnt of ^ucation,
1045. P* 7*-

212 Teaching the ICiodeigaiten GKiM

g. Reading about recent medical discoveries.

10. Deaths occurring in community, discussion of statistics
concerning causes of deaths.

Needless to say. some of the understandings involved in
these activities are beyond the grasp of kindergartners. However,
most young children have had some experiences in these areas
and much meaningful learning can arise by using them as a
starting point in teaching prmciples of health, For example, after
the children have been weighed and measured they might like
to talk about “growing big” and how it comes about— the role
of food, rest, and play in growing bigger. If many children are
absent with colds, the teacher may initiate discussion of how
diseases spread and what children can do to protect themselves
and others from infccdon.

The teacher of kindergarten chilrhen must be satisfied with
very small be^oings in some instances. For some children she
will have to start with the most fundamental rules of keeping
clean. In almost every kindergarten there will be a few chUdren
who come from homes in which the need for cleanliness is not
considered so important as most teachers believe it to be. Some
children may need very direct help in wasliing their hands and
faces before they begin the day and before eating.

In the kindergarten, the teacher will help children learn to
rest, to avoid contagion, and to develop strong bodies through
adequate exerdse and proper diet Young duldren cannot grasp
the meaning of such abstract terms as “health." Health concepts
must be introduced in concrete, practical situations.

Children can acquire the “mental set" essential for healthful
living through discussion of the school's nutritional program. In
some schools children are allowed to participate in planning their
own lunches. Such a plan not only hdps children to learn food
values but can also do much to solve eating problems; if they
have had a hand in planning what to eat, children may co-
operate more readily in eating. Introducing children to new

Health and Safety 213

foods is often a diiBcult problem. But even at the age of four
or five, the child mn be tau^t at his ovsn level of xmderstanding
what his health needs are and can participate actively in efforts
to meet these needs.

The kindergartner should make the acquaintance of the
school nurse at the earliest opportunity, so that his first meeting
is not an unpleasant one occasioned by a cut or some other health
need \^ch may cause him pain in treatment. Children can also
acquire important health learnings through discussion with the
teacher or school nurse of the program of immunization, of the
need for ezerdse and rest, and of the work of the school dentist

The kindergarten teacher may use the child’s interest in
dramatic play to help him over some of the Tiumps" in the school
health program. Few children enjoy inoculations, but if children
are given an opportunity through play to express tiieir fears and
apprehcnaons as well as to leam procedures, some of the prob-
lem may be solved. Being *pennitted* to express fear may be of
real help to the child who feels be may lose face with the group if
he cries. Acquainting children with procedures will help the nurse
and doctor as well as the children; medical attention can be
^ven more efficiently if it is not necessary to remind each child
to get in line, bare his arm, etc. Some dramatic play after these
experiences may also help children to release tensions. A skillful
teacher might even be able to use such a situation as a point of
departure for discussion. Children who ordinarily have little to
say might find much to talk about after they have been inocu-
lated.

Providing Heollh Services

As ^Vheatley and Hallock * point out:

No child can get rid of an already existing defect or infection
or chronic illness merely by knowing amt practicing the rules of
healthful living. The child who leams in school that TniTtr jj an
' Wheatley and HaHoci^ op. rit, p. lo.

214 Teadiing the Kindergarten Child

diet, rest, work, play, and disease. Health education is successful
only if it results in improved healthful living for the child, bis
family, and the community in whidi he lives.

Teaching Habits of Safety

health instruction, safety instruction for the young child
comes out of the child's daily eiperiences. Teachers in the kinder-
garten use every opportunity to teach prindples of safety. \Vhen
children are in the school conidors, the teacher points out the
need for walking rather running. She shows the children
how to use scissors and other kindergarten equipment properly;
she helps them understand the danger of running into the street.
Much safety instruction also can be presented through stories
and discussion.

The Association of School Administrators has formulated the
foUoNviag safety objectives for the elementary school: *

l. To help children recognize situations invotving hazards.

z. To doclop habits of conduct %vbicb wdl enable children to
meet situations of daily life with as little danger as possible
to themselves.

3. To develop habits of carefulness and obedience to safety rules
at home, on the streets, in school, or at play.

4. To teach children to read, understand, and obey safety rules
and regulations.

5. To teach children safe conduct in the use of street cars,
private automobiles, and busses.

6. To develop habits of orderliness and carefulness in the use
of playthings, tools, commoD articles of the home and school,
and in the use of fire.

7. To deselop alertness, agility, and muscular control through
rhythmic cserdses, iday, games, and other physical activities.

S. To teach children to cooperate to pro’cnt accidents and the
taking of unnecessaiy risLs invoI>‘iog physical dangers.

■ Americari School Buildtngi, Twenltt-tnenth Yearbook. Washington, D. C.,
National K s h t cation Assodatioa. Amczicaa Associatkio of School Admin-
Utraton, aM9. pi

218 Teaching the Kindergasten Child

g. To develop wholesome attitudes concemhig: (a) law and
law enforcement officers; (h) tlie safety of themselves and
others; (c) organized efforts to assure safety for alL

10. To give children actual experiences in desirable safety prac-
tices.

In most of these areas, the kindergarten teacher can do little
more than begin to give children some understanding. But she
can begin— and that is the important thing. Children can beg^n
to recognize the hazards of matches, glass, and rusty nails; they
can learn to exercise caution when descending stairs or crossing
streets. They can leam to recognize— althou^ they cannot actu-
ally read— signs, and they can leam to respect and obey people
such as the safety patrol, tho policeman, and the fireman, whose
function is to safeguard their welfare. Many of the objectives
listed above will not be reached until children are more mature,
but the alert kindergarten teacher begins the safety education of
children at the earliest opportunity.

Learnings in the area of safety should arise from the normal
activities of the school day. Memorizing rules is of little value.
The acquisition of new equipment, for example, can provide an
excellent opportunity for teaching principles of safety in using
and caring for toys and materials. Yet, although safety can be
taught effectively througli children's other school activities, this
method ought not to take the place of a planned program of
safety. Any school interested in the welfare of children establishes
orderly procedures and policies regarding fire drills, first aid, and
other emergency preparation. Even kindergartners can begin to
understand these aspects of school living.

The school cannot control the home situation of children, but
it should provide a safe and healthful school environment. If the
diild is to leam good health and safety habits, good teaching
must be combined with an environment that practices the prin-
ciples that are taught, hlany schools— especially older ones— are
less than ideal in this respect, but the teacher can make better
use of existing facilities if she understands clearly the health

Health and Safety 217

Tieeds of cMdten and her role in the health and safety pro^am
of the schooL Helping children leam to walk safely down hazard-
ous stairways and maldng effective use of the available natural
lighting, for example, can n^e some difference to the health
and safety of the children in such a scbooL

The kindergarten room itself must be safe. It should have
suffioLent and space. Heavy objects should not be placed
so that they might fall on children. All obstructions should be
removed when children are playing running games, and radiators
should have guards.

Kindergarten teachers should be espedally careful that beads
or other small objects which might roll under a child’s shoe and
cause him to fall are not left on the floor. Children should be
taught to carry scissors or other sharp objects with the points
down; they should be taught not to skip or lun while they are
carrying things. Good safety rules should be observed when using
saws and hamm ers at the work bench.

The furniture used by children shoxild fit them so that they
can sit or work without discomfort Because children vary in
size, chairs of varying height should be provided so that all
children are able to place their feet comfortably on the floor.
Tables should not be so low that children’s knees hit the table
apron or so high that children are under strain when sitting at
them. All cupboards and storage space should be within the
reach of children and their contents so arranged that they are
unlikely to tumble out and injure children.

Children slmuld be reasonably safe on the playground.
Ideally, kindcrgarteo cliildreo should have a playground of their
own. If this is not possible, play areas should be fenced in or at
least so situated that children will not run into the street. Suf-
fidcot supervision so that younger children do not get hurt by
older and larger children should be provided, and the use of
heavy and potentially dangerous equipment should at all times
be supervised. Equipment sbouU be checked periodically to
make sure that the wood in slides is not splintered, that the rungs

21S Teaching the Kindergarten rhild

of the jungle gym are firmly braced, and that all other facilities
ore in proper working order and present no hazards to lander*
gartners. If playground equipment indudes materials such as
planks or crates, the teacher should make sure that no nails pro*
trude. If the playground has a discarded automobile chassis,
washtub, or any of the other makeshift articles children enjoy
playing with, the teacher should check them for rust and make
sure that there are no shaq) edges to cut children or tear their
clothes.

Most schools have a saiety patrol made up of boys and girls
in the upper grades who are given the responsibility of supervis-
ing young children crossing streets in the vicinity of the school
According to Otto, one sixth of all aeddents to children in the
age group from five to fourteen occur at street intersections.*
Were it not for the %vork of the school patrol, this aeddent rate
could well be much higher. They render an important service
to the children of the school and tJie community. Kindergartners,
of course, should be taught to obey the warnings of the patrol
They also need practical lessons in safety because many of them
go to and from school unaccompanied, and at this early age a
good percentage of them have not yet learned the caution neces-
sary to preserve life and limb. The kindergarten can also intro-
duce children to the policeman or fireman. Many children have
been taught by adults to fear the policeman. The kindergarten
teacher can arrange for visits by the policeman (o die classroom
to dispel any fears children may harbor and to show them that
the policeman is a friend. Visits to the fire station can help
children imderstand the function of this community helper.

Centers of interest that are both valuable and enjoyable can
be built around safety practices. For example, the teacher might
begin by teaching the group a song about tlie trafiic lights— red
for “stop,” yellow for “wait," and green for “go.” The song may
lead to a discussion of proper behavior in crossing streets and

' Heniy Otto, Social Eduaiiion in Elmentarv Scfioolt, New Voile, Rinehart,
1956, p. 105.

Health and Safety 219

climbing up and do«-n stairs, of wliat the policeman does, or of
many other activities in whic^ duldrcn engage or are interested.
The group may want to take a w’alk to the nearest traffic h’ght
to observe the signal changes and the way in which pedestrians
are protected by the lights. They can make their own traffic signs
to use %vith bicycles or wheel toys in the kindergarten or on the
playground. They can make drawings and paintings of traffic
signab, of the traffic policeman, of pedestrians crossing the street
A member of the school patrol or a policeman may come to diS'
cuss safety practices with the children. Thus a center of interest
is built around safety. Depending on the group, such an interest
can branch out into many directions. Other safety areas provide
an equally good opportunity to develop centers of interest

Teacliers and children ran formulate standards of safety
within their own classroom, duldicn are capable, at a very early
age, of recogoiring the need for caution in using sdssoit and
oilier dangerous equipment but they may need to be reminded.
Going up and down stairs is an activity in which young children
may experience difficulty. Making each child responsible for
holding on to railings and walking carefully will help to eliminate
accidents due to carelessness or running on stairways. Learning
to sliare can have an important bearing on accident prevention,
because children may hurt themselves while quarreling over
cqiupment If they arc given opportunity to the problem

with an adult who understands them, most kindergarten children
are capable of deciding how they can share materials and toys
so that each has a turn and no one is hurt. Children should be
encouraged to inform the teacher of any hazard to safety they
observe. Discussing tliC problem and suggesting solutions can
make them feel that they have a port in eliminating dangers.
Small children should be taught to report accidents to the teacher
Immediately so tliat first-aid can be ^vcn. If ^illdrcn are com-
mended for their efforts, they become very adept at spotting
picking up, and disposing of such hazards as nails, matches, and
sliarp sticks on the playground.

220 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

It perhaps should be talcen for granted that teachers uill set
duldren a good example itt IiabiU of both health and safety.
Teachers who keep themselves well are, other things being equal,
better teachers. And certainly they should never violate safety
rules that they %vish the children fo observe.

Problemi for Discussion

1 . Miss Famswordi teaches kindergarten in a school located near a
migrant labor camp. Miss tliillips teadtes kindergarten in a neigh-
borhood of professional people. tVould the health program ia these
two kindergaitens probably be different? Neeessorih/ so? Why?

a. Mrs. Dodd has forbidden her five-year-old daughter to cross a
street which she needs to cross in order to get home unless the
school patrol is on duty. There have been occasions when tliat
comei was not patrolled. As a result the child has become ex-
tremely fearful; she cries, and worries lest the patrol not be there
when she goes home. How would you handle this situation?

3 . Miss Otis has *health irupecUon'* every moiaing, asking the chil-
dten whether they have brushed their teeth and eaten a good
breakfast before coming to sdiooL Mrs. Rogers feels that this ir
an uowire procedure. Oa what grounds might Mn. Rogers base
her objection to Miss Otis* health-inspection plan?

4 . In some schools, children who are apparently not being taught to
brush their teeth at home do so at school with a brush provided
by their parents or by the school. Do you approve of this practice?
Why or why not? Will "transfer of training" necessarily take place?

5 . Miss Palmer has prepared a chart listing the name of every chUd
in her kindergarten. Children who come to school with clean hands
get stars after their natites. Miss Palmer says this method provides
children with an incentive to keep dean and is therefore effective
educational procedure. Miss Morton degrees. Put yourself in Miss
Morton’s place and give your reasons for objecting.

Suggested Additional Reodlng

Anderson, C. L., School Health Practices. St. X-ouis, C. V. Mosby Co.,
1956-

Health and Safety 221

Grout, Rulh E., Health Teaching in Schools. Second ed., Philadelphia,
W. B. Saunders Co., 1953.

Crou.ing Up Safely, Washington, D. C., Association ior Childhood
Education International, 1^44.

Health Education. Washington, D. C., National Education Assodation,
1948.

Health Problems of School Age Children. Statistical Bulletin, New
York, Metropolitan life Insurance Co., May 1947, XXVIIL

Healthful Lioing for Children. Washington, D. C., Assodation for
Childhood Education International, 1944.

Lockwood, E. A., Aciioiiies in Nutrition Education for Kindergarten
Through Sixth Grade. New Yorl^ Department of Nutrition, Harvard
School of Public Health, distributed by Nutrition Foundation, Inc.,
194a

Fotgieter, M., and Everitt. V., “A Study of Children’s Eating Habits.”
/oumol 0/ Home EconomicSt XLIl, 363>66.

Schneider, Elsa, and McNeeiy, Simon, Teachers Contribute to Child
Health. Washington, D. C., U. S. Office of Education)

Tlie School Child; Health Progreu and Needs. New York, Metropoli*
tan Life Insurance Co., October 1947.

Turner, C. E., School Health and He^th Education. St. Louis, C. V.
Mosby Co., 1952.

Wheatley, George M., and MaOock. Grace, Health Observation of
School Children. New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1956.

222 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

. Learning the Wags of Democracy

Education, it has been said, is a society’s means of ensuring its
perpetuation by producing the kind of iodividuaf who will per*
sonify and v.'ork to maintaia the values of that society. Ihe goals
of education in any society, tlierefore, are determined largely by
the role that the individual is expected to play. In a totalit^an
society, for example, the citizen is expected, above all, to be
obedient; the educational system therefore seeks to develop dociU
ity, conformity, and unquestioning acceptance of externally izO'
posed rules of behavior. A democratic society, on the other hand,
is based on the complex idea of co-operation among free indi-
viduab. Its educational system therefore has complex goals. It
seeks to develop the individual to his full capacity— to make him
independent, self-directing, and creative. And it also seeks to
make him aware of, and capable of assuming, bis responsibilities
for the group welfare— his obligations to contribute to the group
whenever possible, to accept the contributions, and respect the
rights, of others, and at all times to be guided in decisions and
action by the needs and wishes of the group of whldi he is a
part. In Kilpatricl^s words,* *\Ve wish, as befits a democracy, a
self-determining person, one not tied to the dictates or directions

^William H. Kilpatricl^ Fhilotoplii/ of Education, New York, MacmiUan,
19S». P- 304-

223

of others, one who can himself make worthy and rewarding
choices for his own living and for die common good."

The concept of democracy has far-reaching implications in
guiding the growth of children. Tlie goals we have described
above are much more difficult to achieve than those of a totali-
tarian society; they cannot be taught merely by precept If the
child is to become a responsible citizen of a democracy, the school
must serve as a laboratory in which the essentials of democratic
living are practiced at all times. It must be an environment rich
in experiences and materials to challenge the individual and
stimulate his growth, hut it must not penalize the child who
develops more slowly than others. It must also emphasize co-
operative behavior, by helping children to work togedier with
common toys, teaching them to take turns, and encouraging them
to share possessions and experiences vvith others. It must provide
opportunities for developing leadershi^and followership. And
it must permit and encourage the child to make choices and
assume responsibility for the outcome of his decisions from his
earliest experience in sebooL Only through continuous practice
in the ways of democracy can the child become the kind of citizen
our society wants and needs.

Learning to Make Decisions

According to John Dewey,* *7011 education comes only when
there is a responsible share on the part of each person, in propor-
tion to capacity, in shaping the aims and policies of the social
group to which he belongs.” For the kindergarten teacher, the
key words in this statement are “in proportion to capacity." None
of us would contend that four- and five-year-olds are sufficiently
aware of their own educational needs to determine all the activi-
ties or experiences they should have as londergartners. But few
persons who have worked democratically with children would
deny that even young children are capable of making some deci-
*Iohn Dewey, Reconstntetkm InFhHomphg, Boston, Beacon, 194S, p. 2og.

224 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

sioas regarding their own welfare or conduct. To help diildren
become able to help themsdvcs— to help them become self-
directing individuals— is tlie ultimate goal of all education in a
democratic society.

Few teachers would debate the importance of this goat Yet
many teachers seem unable or unwilling to give the child the
practice he needs to develop this skill. Granted, it is often much
easier and more efficient for tbo teacher herself to make whatever
decisions need to be made. It would also be easier and more
efficient for the first-grade teaclier to rvrite out each cliild’s name
than to teach him to do so, and for the fourth-grade teacher to
solve the arithmetic problem than for her to teach the pupils to
uxirk it ouL But is the writing of a name or the solving of a
problem— or the making of a decision— the real goal? The answer,
of course, is no; we want the child to have experience in all these
activides-unsuccessful as Nvell as successful experience— so that
he will ultimately be able to write what he needs to write, to
solve his own problems, to make his own decisions. So that, in
short; he will become a scU-directiag individual.

Granted, too, that kindergartners are too immature to make
all decisions or to direct themselves in all activities. But every
cliild, even before he reaches the age of four or five, is able to
da some thinking for himself, to solve at least some of his daily
problems. In the beginning, the young cliild can solve only very
simple and concrete problems, but as he matures he succeeds
in increasingly complex matters. The teacher can help children
develop skill in critical thinlang by effectively guiding them in
identifying individual and group problems, making and carrying
through plans to solve these problems, and evaluating the out-
come of their efforts.

In the kindergarten the diild embarks on the transition horn
rather complete domination by adults to independence. Of course,
some adult control is not only necessary for young cliildren but
highly desirable. Children need to have adults set the limi ts for
them sometimes. They become confused and disturbed if no one

Leamiog the Ways of Democracy 225

ever says “no” to them, if they are forced to rely on themselves
as their only guide. It is a frightening experience for anyone, child
or grownup, to be given more responsibility than he is ready for.
But control should be exercised only to the degree necessary to
ensure the health and safety of children and their acceptance
of desirable behavior patterns. It must be the land of control
that extends the child's responsibility for bis own behavior rather
than restricts it, the Idnd that helps dnldien to learn that respon-
sible self-direction is more desirable and satisfying than being
managed by others.

Such a concept of control requires a careful distinction
between “audioritative" and “audioritarian* points of view. The
former seeks to &ee the child, the latter to bind him. Authority
plays a role in educadon— but that role is to develop independ-
ence in cbildreo. Football players do not object to their coach’s
use of authority in training drem to be football players; £bey
know that what they are leaimog will help them to look after
themselves on the football field. We seek out authorities to help
us learn to play the piano, to fiy an airplane, to speak a foreign
tongue. But our object in seeking ibese authorities is eventual
independence; once we have achieved the goals that we have set,
we no longer need the help of a pianist, a pilot, or a linguist
Similarly, the child who wishes to make a boat seeks the author-
ity of his teacher to help him fit two boards together so that he
can carry out his goaL But be seeks to leam so that the next
time he will need no help— he wants to depend on himself. Many
teachers, perhaps unknowingly, use their authority and prestige
to make children dependent on them. Children who are constantly
asking their teacher, ”What shall I do now?” are failing to leam
a very important skill: the ability to direct themselves.

Children leam to maVa decisions by actually making them.
That would seem to be an obvious truth; no one would dispute
that a person learns to play the piano by playing, to swim by
.swimming, to fiy a kite by Sying one. But making decisions is
.something less tangible than playing the piano; adults sometimes

226 Teaching the Kindeigartea rhiU

believe that children \vUI develop the ability to make their own
decisions “with maturity." MaturUy helps, of that there is no
doubt, but practice is necessary, too.

Children should not be hurried into dedsions. Democratic
procedures are time-consuming, but what appears to be needless
discussion may in reality be necessary to making intelligent
decisions. If children are pressured into coming to premature
dedsions, they may come to depend on the teacher or the more
vocal members of the group to make their decisions. Thus they
become more dependent rather than more capable of managing
their own affairs.

Children need daily opportunities to make dedsioas, to solve
problems, even before they are capable of doing so effectively.
As Caswell and Fosbay point out, 'Mastezy of tools and tech-
luques does not precede their use in problem situations. Mastery
is achieved as the tools are employed in dealing with situations.
Conversely, problem solving is not something that can be delayed
to a certain point in maturit)^ it has small beginnings, as do all
types of behavior which must be nurtured from the child’s first
learning." *

Children can grow in the ability to plan and organize only
through many experiences in planning and organizing. The skill-
ful teacher gives children many opportunities for making choices
and assuming responsibility geared to their level of maturity.
When more direct guidance is necessary, she gives suggestions
rather than commands or directions, leaving the child iree to
accept or reject her ideas on their merits. Tlie school can set up
many “choice situations" for childrcm, even kindergartneis, so
tliat they can leam to make dedsions for themselves.

Children slwuld also be permitted to experience tlie outcome
of (heir own unwise, perhaps hastily made, decisions. For exam-
ple, tlie group might decide to undertake a construction project
which the teacher realizes is quite beyond their understanding

* HoUis L. Caswell and A. Wellesley Foshay, Education in the Elementary
Scliool, New York, American Book, 1950. p. 34.

Leanting the Ways of Democracy 227

and capabilities. If they are pennittcd to cairy out their dedaon,
the project will probably fail— but the undertaldng as a whole
need not be a failure. Children will learn much from the cxpe>
lienee of working in the group on a common undertaking of their
own choosing, and they will also leam something of the privileges
and responsibilities of decision making. If the teacher forbids the
activity, no such learning will take place. And if the undertaking
is a success— so much the better. Not only has the group learned
a great deal but so has the teachecl

Permitting children to make their own dedsions may also
result in many concrete learnings and in the effective “inteinaliza*
tioa" of those learnings. If, for eiample, the group dawdles a
great deal, the teacher may try to coerce them into getting ready
for story time. This method might be effective, for a while, but
it produces no learnings since it is based essentially on fear of
the teacher's displeasure. Or the teacher might try to explain the
alternatives to children, helping them to cxamiDe all possibilities
before aihviog at their own decision. She might try to show them,
by using the dock, that if they take a long time deaning up
after easel painting or if they dioose to spend extra time in doll
play, story time will become very short as a result This method
may or may not be effective; somedroes the teacher will spend
much time explaining things to drildren to no apparent effect
But once they have experienced the result of their dedston- a
shorter story hour— they will be ready to appreciate the teacher’s
reasoning and to cany over this learning into other situations.

Children may need to ffnd out for themselves whether living
is more comfortable when tlmgs are put in theis proper places
or when everyone just drops what be was playing with at the end
of the work period. Should diildien dedde that a messy room
doesn’t bother them— and such a decision is possible— the burden
would be on the teacher to take every opportunity to point out
that “if the hammer were in its proper place we could find it;“
and “if the books were on the book shelf we would be able to
find one to choose for storytelling." An alert teacher can demon-

228 Teaching the Kinda^iten CbOd

strate to children in a very dwrt time that they work more happUy
and freely in an orderly room.

'With added maturity children should become increasingly
self-reliant and responsible and should be allowed to participate
in school-management duties appropriate to their age and experi-
ence. Genuine teacher-pupil planning means co-operative plan-
ning by teacher and child; it does not mean that the teacher
somehow gets children to accept plans that she has formxilated,
that she ’'motivates'* children to do what she has all along planned
that they should do. Nor does it mean that children take over
the job of the teacher. Bather, it means that children are given
some opportunity to make decisions which affect their welfare.

There are many responsibilities whidi can be shared with
children, hut there will always be some things which teachers
or administrators should do. It is not within the prerogative of
children in most sciiools, for example, to dedde on tire number
of fire drills during the year. Hiat is the responsibility of teachers
and administrators or possibly dly ofBcials. But children can help
plan how to empty the classroom when the fire bell soimds.
Klndergartners do not decide on their own curriculmns, but they
can help to plan specific experiences within a given framework.
They do not dedde whether language activities should be a
part of the kindergarten day, but they can help to choose the
story for storytelling time.

It is the task of the teacher to help the child make decisions
which represent, for him, constantly increasing matmity in judg-
ment. At the kindergarten level children may be mature enough
to dedde whether they will have crackers and juice for lunch
or crackers and milk but not yet old enough or experienced
enough to determine lunch needs beyond tliis point At the third-
grade level the child may be sufficiently mature to dedde whether
he should do a particular tiling right now or defer it to a later
time— but not whether it should be done at all. At the sixth-grade
level he may be old enough to dedde not only what to have for
lunch but also whether he needs lunch— not only whether some-

Leammg the IVays of Democrac/ 229

thing should be done now or later but whether it need be done
at alL

Kindergarten children may ev^ be ready to help plan activi-
ties in the kindergarten. If rain makes the regular period of out-
door play impossible, children can help to reschedule the day’s
prop-am. After discussion of various possibilities, they may decide
that they would like to have an extra-long work-play period, or
to substitute an organized game for the usual outdoor play. \Vhea
a child has a birthday the group may want to plan the best time
for the party. (To adults it may "logically'’ fall in the regular
lunch time, but to children it may be more "logical” to omit the
usual lunch time and have the party begin or end the day. ) Some-
times the kindergarten is invited to participate in activities in
other classrooms during what is ordinarily rest time. The group
can help decide whether to shorten all periods preceding it and
thus have a short period of rest or to eliminate rest altogether.

AU these dedsiOQS need guidmee, of course, and children
may make mistakes. But the alert teacher can use these mistakes
to good advantage. If the group has deeded to eliminate the
zest period and some of the children are overtired arid irritable
as a result, the teacher will discuss the problem with the class as
soon as possible and remind them of the discussion the next time
they are called upon to make a decision concerning rest.

Learning to live in the Group

The teacher tries to make the child’s initial esrperiences in
the group pleasant and sadsfying. A (dild will malrp little effort
to conform to the wishes of a group in which he does not feel
comfortable or adequate. As we have said, the sodal atmosphere
for the young child must be facilitating rather than frustrating.
Restrictioiis should be confined to the few simple rules necessary
to make group living safe and rewarding for all the children.
With increased experience and maturity, and with adequate
guidance, children become more sensitive to the feelings and

230 Teaching the Kindergarten f^iiM

needs of others and therefore more likely to get along well with
their peers. When we encourage a child to take an interest in the
motives and emotions of others, we are helping him to succeed
in his social relationships.

In the modem school, where provision for group interchange
is made, children learn the social conventions which we call
“good manners" informally. If they are not imposed on children
by adults, good manners are more likely to become part of
children's behavior. It does not take even the young child long
to learn that politeness and consideration for others are merely
a means of easing human adjustment Without a few rules of
behavior there would be too much confusion for efficiency in
work or enjoyment in play.

This does not mean, however, that the teacher needs to make
the rules. Chiidren are quite capable of self-discipline-and of
disciplining others-if they are but given a chance to express
themselves. Tearing books, for example, is a perennial problem
in any group of young children. The teacher can decide on the
penalty for such behavior, or the group can discuss the problem
and arrive at an appropriate punishment. In such discussions,
children need to be guided away from becoming personal— "\Ve
aren't talking about the fact that Jimmy tore a book; wo are
talking about what we should do when anybody tears a book."
They need also to be guided away from prescribing punish*
ments that are too rash. Some children have experienced rather
drastic penalties for misbehavior at home and may reflect thdr
experience in their suggestions for disdplining children in the
kindergarten. And most four- and flve-ycar-clds are rather self-
righteous; “I never do that" is comnmnly beard. The teacher may
therefore have to point out that banishing the offending child
forever from the kindergarten is too severe a punishment for
tearing a book. She will need to suggest other possibilities until
the children arrive at some better judgment From a learning
standpoint, it is much better for children to make tliese decisions
than for the teacher to make them. Children need much help

Learning the Ways of Democracy 231

in inaHng decisions; learning to live peacefully and happily with
others is a slow and difficult process. Allowing children to make
their own decisions will not solve all behavioral problems— prob-
ably not even most of them— but it will place an increasing re-
sponsibffity on children for their own behavior.

Children soon recognize that there are “outside voices” for
shouting on the playground and “inside voices” for talking and
discussing in the classroom. They can learn to regulate their own
behavior in this respect and help to formulate almost all the rules
necessary for satisfying living in the kindergarten. It may be a
good idea for the teacher to list these standards of behavior and
post them where children can see them. Even though no one but
the teacher is able to read them, merely having them where they
can be seen will serve as a renunder to children.

In the making of group decisions, all points of view should
of course be heard. Discussion should be carried out in such a
way that everyone can make suggestions for evaluation by the
rest of the group. Children should learn that eadi individual has
ri^ts and responsibilities which must be respected, and no one
should he subjected to undue pressure by others.

Most modem educators would agree that children work best
in groups in which self-imposed standards help them to reach
the common goals for which they strive. In order to function
effectively, laws or standards of behavior must be internalized,
or made one's o^vn, and one of the most effective ways of bringing
about internalization is to permit the child to help shape the
rules by which he lives. Many children in school “behave” only
when the teacher is present, either because they do not want
to disappoint her or because they fear her censure. If children
arc allowed to formulate thdr o\vn standards of behavior, they
will not need the teacher to tell them how they should behave;
ratljcr, Uicy will remind one another and thus relieve the teacher
of much onerous police duty.

Tlie good kindergarten provides many group experiences for
children, building on one of the strongest motivating forces in

232 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

juvenile society— gregariousness. Most children prefer being witli
their peers to being alone; the group provides the setting in wliich
the child e^^resses his ego and ei^crieoces the joys of sodal
interchange. The good school is also concerned mth the quality
os well os quantity of the child s group experiences.

Teachers who understand children know that four- and five-
year-olds uill not always be successful in these first group con-
tacts. Ihey need repeated opportunities to develop sensitivity to
the rights and privileges of members of a social group and guid-
ance in becoming responsible group members. Because tlie kin-
dergarten teacher is free of the pressure to teach children to read,
to write, to compute, or to perfonn in some other closely defined
manner, she can devote a great deal of attention to helping the
child develop satisfactory social patterns in living uith his age
mates.

Often the teacher must be satisfied with what appears to be
iafioitesunal progress in this area. A child who has experienced
failure in his behavior ia the group should have the opportU'
nity to experience success as early as possible after the failure.
It may be necessary to isolate such a child from the group for a
time, but as soon as he appears to be able to work or play
pleasantly with the others ho should rejoin tlicm. diildrcn Icam
by doing, and they cannot Icom how to behave in a group by
being isolated. The child Iconis to be a responsible group member
by parUdpating in a variety of activities with others, not by
standing in tlic hall or sitting on a chair removed from cvcr)-onc.

Unless tile safety of other children is involved, the offending
cluld should be removed from the group only Jong enough to
reorient himself. If ho cannot play constructively with equipment
used by the group he may have to be forbidden to use it-agoin,
a dccisIoD whicli children can make. But as soon as ho is able to
pby with it pn>i>crly be should bo permitted to use it again. This
means that some cliildrcn may need special guidance. The IdnJcr-
garten tcaclier may have to help some children to overcome hand-
icaps in social relationships which they have developed prior to

Learning tbs Ways of Eiemotney 233

school entrance. A child who has been the focus o! attention at
home may find it difficult to subordinate his selfish desires to tlie
desires of the group; he may be unable to take turns in using
equipment or in group discusHon. A drild who has had fe^v
social contacts may let the rest of the group take advantage of
him, and the tead)cr may have to teach liim how to assert lus
o^^■n rights. There ^vill be children, even at four ox five years of
age, who have been taught at home to fight for their “rights"
and do so in the kindergarteo. These children also need special
guidance from the teacher so that they can leam to live more
satisfactorily in the group.

It must be emphasized that the achievement of self-disdpline
and self-direction is exceedingly complex and difficult In helping
children to develop these qualities the teacher in no way relin-
quishes her role as leader. She still controls the social climate
in the kindergarten and it is she who sets the frame of reference
within which children moke choices. However, in group self*
discipline, responsibility is shared with the children, and as a
result authoritarian control becomes quite unnecessary. Even the
kindergarten child can, with sldllful gxudance, be made aware
of the patterns of group interaction and os a result develop some
degree of self-discipline. He will leam very early that if he docs
not respect the rights of others in taking turns, his rights will not
be respected. He can leam very soon after he becomes a part of
the group that each member must ^ve up some of his own selfish
desires in order to receive the benefits of group membership.

The development of independence is certainly one of tfie
most important aims of group living. Many teachers, like many
young parents, find it difficult to allow children to perform for
themselves all the tasks which they are capable of perfonning.
Sometimes parents are quite amazed at how independent and
responsible their children have become after only brief experience
in schooL The kindergarten teadier who knows how these quali-
ties develop in children sets the stage for their growth.

Making materials and equipment readily accessible to chil-

234 Teaching the Kindergarten Oiild

dren will help hee them irom the necessity of calling on the
teacher and therefore will help diem develop more responsibility
and self-dependence. Subtle suggestions on the part of the teacher
may also help build initiative, resourcefulness, and independence.
When a child encounters difficulty in the pursuit of an activity,
such a question as *13o you see anything else you can do?” may
help him to get on the right tiaclc in the solution of his problem.
Beminding children of past experiences which have a bearing
on a present difficulty and helping them see relationships and
understand the causes of failure will help them to become less
dependent on adults.

Children leam to accept responsibility by assuming responsi-
bility for many little jobs in the laodergartea— feeding the Bsh,
watering the plants, or cleaning up after work time. Participating
in such duties helps to build in the child a feeling of persona]
obligation for the welfare of the group.

Life ia the well-planned kindergarten, then, is so organized
that young children leam to get along with one another, become
^vi]Iing to accept the suggestions of others, and develop self-
respect The democracy in which our children live makes de*
mands on these skills. There is perhaps no area of learning in
which adults are so immature as that of human relationships.
Therefore these learnings caimot begin too early; in the school
they begin with the very youngest

The concept of democracy has far-reaching consequences in
guiding the growth of children. One of the first essentials is a
considerate regard for the characteristics of the individual child.
A sensitivity to the unique nature of each child and respect for
his personality are the very essence of democracy. The good
modem school has the responsibility of studying and developing
the interests and abilities of every child. In her concern for
helping children to become effective group members, the teacher
must not lose sight of her obligatioa to draw out the unique
potential of the individual child.

One of the most important elements in a democracy, as we

Learning the Ways of Democracy 2G5

have said, is leadership. We have long since ceased to think that
leaders are bom. Every child has potentialities for some kind of
leadership, and each child should have the opportunity to expo*
lienee the satisfactions of being a leader.

We have also said that freedom is necessary to a democratic
society and children must be taught to use it wisely. They have
to learn— and often the imderstanding comes slowly— what free-
dom means and what it entails for those who would have it and
keep it Sucli learning has its begionings in simplest form as soon
as the child is capable of making a choice and assuming respon-
sibility for the outcome of his choice. By the age of four the
child is ready for some education in freedom.

Freedom to make choices implies a freedom to choose goals.
If the child is helped to choose wisely, to set his course and
work persistently until he has achieved his goal, be has learned a
lesson that ^vill be valuable throughout life. Children con quite
effectively direct and control their own behavior when they are
engaged in an activity that appears to them to be worthwhile,
when they are pursuing goals that are within their understanding,
and when they have a chance to exercise some judgment Adults
recognize this need for the individual to participate in the group
by setting up committees within their various organizations.
Everyone, even a child, will more readily support an activity if
he has had a hand in planning it from the beginning. The group
becomes more cohesive and more effective in achieving its goals
if everyone is ^ven a part.

Problems for Discussion

1. Are there matters in the kindergarten about which children are
too immature to make a decanon? Cive some examples.

2 . Mrs. Owen says to her Idndergartners, T Avant you to. . . Mrs.
Sachs uses this approach in talking to duldren: “Xet's , . or
“It’s time to. . . ^Vh^ch do you think is most effective with
children? Why?

236 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

3. Are most classrooms in your experience democratic or autocratic
in nature? \Vhat characteristics of tbe teacher diSerenUate one
situation from the other?

4. Miss Farnsworth tells children not to worry about when it is time
for recess or time to clean up. “Ill tell you when it’s time,” she
says. She is disturbed because her children seem immature and
dependent. How could Miss Farnsworth improve this situation?
What might be a cause of immature behavior in these children?

Suggested Additionol Reading

Brown, Marguerite W., “The Child Learns Through 'Consequences.' ”
BuUetin of the tnstiiute of Child Studies, Toronto, igS5, XVZI, s,
9*M.

Casseh Russel N., The Pspehotogy of Child DiscipUne. CiDcinnaU,
C. A. Gregory Co., 1955.

Discipline. Washington, D. C, Association for Childhood Education
Istemational, 1957.

Hymes, James L., Jr., Behavior and Itisbehocior. New York, Prentice
Uall, Inc., 2955.

A Pound of Prevention. BuQetio, Hew York, New York State
Committee on Mental Hygiene, 1947.

Langdon, Grace, and Stout, Irving W., Discipline of Well-Adjusted
Children. New York, John Day Co., 1952-

Leonard, Charles W., Why CAiidren Riisbehave. Chicago, Science
Research Associates, 2952.

Ridenour, Nina, Building Self-Confidence in Children. Chicago, Science
Research Associates, 2954.

Rogers, Dorothy, Menial Hygiene In Elemeniory Education. Boston,
Houghton Mifflin Co., 2957, Chaps, li, xa, 23.

Sheviakov, George Y., and RedI, Fritz, DiscipUne for Today’s Children
and Youth. Rev. ed., Washington. D. C., Assodatian of Super>
vision and Curriculum Development, National Education Associa-
tion, 1956.

Leamit^ the Ways of Democracy 237

Experiences in Science

Science for tlie kindergarten child is a part of ordinary, everyday
living. Many of the questions of the four* or five-year-old begin
with "why." The child wooden why it rains, why things cast
shadows, why the sky doesn't fall down, why the grass is green.
He seeks explanation for all manner of phenomena that every day
challenge his curiosity. It is this natural cwosity of the child
which provides the foundation for sdeoce experiences in the
kindergarten. Science for the kindergartner, then, is experiences
with materials which help to explain “why* More accurately, it
is a series of experiences which begins when the child is very
young and continues throughout his life. In a well-integrated
curriculum, the child has experiences in science, as in other areas,
as soon as he is old enough to seek knowledge. These experiences
should gradually broaden and deepen to meet his expanding
needs and interests.

The child’s environment is full of things that raise questions
“answerable'* only in terms of sdeoce. Watch A lour- or five-year-
old as be goes through his day. His mother wakes him. How
did her voice travel to him? How does his ear “catch” the sound?
How docs he know the meaning of the sound-how does bis brain
work so that he can interpret it? He gets up and dresses. Of what

238

is his suit made, his shoes, his stockings? He eats his breakfast.
^Vhat is cereal? How does it grow? Where do eggs come from?
Where does milk come from? The sun is shining into the break-
fast nook. Where was the sun while he slept? \Vhy does it start
shining in the morning? Why does the moon shine at night— and
why is it big sometimes and at other times only a sliver? Daddy
backs the car out of the garage to take him to school What is a
gasoline motor? How does it work? How does the gasoline make
it go? When the child arrives at school he hears a belL What
makes it ring? How does the bell work? As he enters the kinder-
garten the teacher asks him to turn on the L'ghts. What is elec-
tricity? How docs it travel to the lights? Why do lights get hot?
In a comer of the classroom is a white rabbit eating carrots. Why
do rabbits eat carrots? How are they like other animals? How
are they different?

Thus, in a space of just a few hours, the modem child is
confronted with a vast number of science phenomena in his
envirornnent-and he is curious about all of them. The science
program of the kindergarten can help to provide at least some
answers by helping young children to explore their world con-
structively.

How Children Leorn in Science

The science program can do more than provide answers. It
can help children to develop faciL'lj' in tvhat has been called—
erroneously, since it applies as weU to every area of learning—
the “scientific’' method. This consists of (i) recognizing a
problem, (2) formulating some possible solutions or working
hypotheses, {3) trying out the suggested solutions, and (4) arriv-
ing at a conclusion which can apply as well to other, similar
situations. If the problem is not solved, new hypotheses must be
formulated and tested. This problem-solving approach can be
used by the young child as well as by the research scientist. As

Experiences in Science 239

Buir, Harding, and Jacobs' point out, “Research work really
begins in the kindergarten. ^Vhen Ei’o-year-olds ask questions
the ans%vers to which involve group exploration and investigation
at their le\’el of development, research has begun."

Even the four* or five-year-old can use the problem-solving
approach with problems that are within liis understanding. The
teacher can help children to form hj-potbeses by using as a point
of departure the questions children ask or various everj-day hap-
penings in the kindergarten. A child notices, for example, that
when be arrives at school on a wintry morning, the plants on
the window sill do not look as they did the day before. The plant
on the teacher's desk, however, is still as it was when he left the
preceding afternoon. “What has happened?" he asks— thus stating
the problem.

Here is a golden opportunity for effective sdence learning.
In their discussion the children recall that it bad been very cold
during the night They then formulate a hypothesis; perhaps it
was too cold and the plants on the siD froze and died. It w*as not
so cold in the middle of the room so the plant on the desk did
not freeze.

Is this the end, is the discussioa complete? Not if we wish
to teach cluldren how to solve problems. The next step is to try
out die hj-pothesis, to see what happens to plants when they are
left out in the cold. So the children leave one plant outside over-
night with nothing to protect it They put another one outside
covered with a box or leave it some place where it has partial
protection. The ne^ rooming they find the answer to their prob-
lem. One plant has frozen; die odier is still green and fresh. The
hj-pothesis was apparendy correct Through further discussion,
the children then formulate their conclusion; if plants are not
protected from the cold, they will die. Kote that their conclusion
is a generalization, a concept— not just a diagnosis of why a par-

1 James Bcir, Lowiy Harding, and LeUod Jacobs, Teaehlng in

the Eiemenicry School New Ycnk, Afjdetoa^Centniy-Cioits, 1530, p. 277.

240 Teaching the Kisdeigaxtoi Child

ticular plant died. Tliey can apply the concept they have formed
to other, more complex problems in the future.

But suppose that the experinmnt described above was im*
successful. Suppose that both plants froze— or that neither didl
Then the group discusses what happened, formulates another
working hypothesis, and proceeds to test until a solution is found
for the problem they set out to solve. In this simple experiment
they have all the elements of "research." They have a problem:
one plant did not die, the others did. They formulated a working
hypothesb: the plants on the ^vindow sill died because it was
colder there than in the middle of the room. They tested their
hypothesis hy experimentation and came to a conclusion.

These four steps have certain implications for learning. We
have said that the first step is to "recognize a problem." But what
constitutes a problem? In terms of the science program, we can
say that a problem exists as a problem when something occurs
which the observer, on the basis of the concepts which he has
previously held, could not have predicted. The implication here
is that there are always at least some previous concepts, even
among kindergartners; otherwise every aspect of life would be
perceived as a problem. Previous concepts always play a role
la the fonnulation of hypotheses. The kindergartner must have
at least some conception of the function of cold in order to be
able to suggest a working theory; otherwise the experiment be-
comes trial-and-crror. If the experiment proves his hypothesis
correct, the child has another concept to add to his store— and
to apply to further situations. ^Vbat we are saying, in effect, is
that learning is cumulative; that problem-solving leads to the
identification of further problem^ on increasingly higher levels;
that learning does not take place in a vacuum; and that learning
in any area involves drawing upon the total store of knowledge,
cutting across several so-called "subject-matter" boundaries.
Learning involves the integration of new concepts with what is
previously known.

The other implication is that testing hypotheses, or trying

E:^rieDces in Sdence 241

things out, is a natural and fundamental way of learning, at the
kindergarten or any other level of development. Science be-
comes meaningful to children who perform experiments. For the
kindergarten child, science is a “doiag* rather than a “talking
about” experience. Because the young child learns more effec-
tively through direct experience, the wise teacher will help chil-
dren use all their senses— si^t, hearing, smell, taste, and touch-
in seeking answers to their questions. Children need to do more
than just observe in order to learn; they need to get into the
middle of things when action is taking place. Do plants need
water? Two plants, one watered, one left dry, will give the
answer. Do magnets pick up glass? Can they pick up things
through paper, water, and glass? An experiment with all manner
of small objects will provide the solution. Do plants need sun?
Put one in the dark and one in a sunny place and see what hap-
pens. Does water have pressure? Attach a hose to the faucet,
vary the pressure, and see if the water is able to “push” any-
thing. Does it push small and big things equally well? Will water
push if the faucet is turned on only slightly? Why not? ib
For the kiodergartner, this approach may mean little more
than reducing the problem to such simple form that observation
will yield the soludon, or trying something to see what will
happen. The scientist, on the other hand, may use the method
merely to confirm a hypothesis, or prediction, based on his pre-
vious knowledge. The experimental approach teaches the c^Od
to depend on himself in finding aimvers.

The Conlent of the Science Program

For a long time observation of living filings was the prime
activity in science for young cdiildrea. Science experiences were
Umited largely to the plant and animal world, and even then
they were concerned mostly with mere identificatiOD. But today
we believe that it is relatively unimportant for the young child
to know that it was a geranium that froze and a fern fiiat didn’t;

242 Teaching the Kindec^iten Child

it i$ more important for him to learn something about the re-
action of plants to temperature— in other words, to form a con-
cept

Today we know more about children and how they learn;
we realize that the scope of dicir interests is much wider than
the biological sciences. Cluldren are concerned with a myriad
of things— magnets, heat, light, stats, the planets— all manner of
things that they see, hear, or otherwise experience. The ques-
tions and problems that arise in connection with everyday living,
projects initiated by the ^lildren themselves, contributions they
make in the matter of collections— all arc excellent springboards
for learnings in the science area. For science study goes on
wherever children are, and good teaching means using first-hand
experiences and actual contact with materials and processes in
the physical enviraoment all about us.

Four- or five-year-olds ore interested in turtles, guppies,
goldfish, polllwogs, rabbits, chideens, and all of the other small
animals. Children of tliis age also enjoy caring for plants and
Sowers, and in the spring they often begin to show interest in
gardening, Many educators feel that every kindergarten should
have some living plants and animals in it so that children can
observe them and study changes. Certainly children need a
variety of experiences with living things. However, the teacher
should remember that children are the most important occupants
of the room. If at any time the presence of animals or plants
makes the room less attractive or comfortable, it is better to do
without them or to choose a kind that can be cared for easily.

Tlie kindergarten-age child also likes to collect things and
derives great pleasure from arranging and rearranging the ob-
jects in a collection. At this age he feels no need for labeling the
materiab; merely manipulating them gives him sufficient satis-
faction. At a later age he will want to “classify," or to collect for
some purpose, but at four or five just collecting for collecting’s
sake is sufficient

Experiences in Science 243

Exploration of the possibilities of the phj'sicai sciences os
part of the sdence experiences for young children has only just
begun. During these times, when es'en the youngest child is
science^nscious, the kindergaiteo shotdd utilize children’s in*
tcrest to help them gain some understandings of chemistry and
physics. Even kindergaitners can learn, by mixing vinegar and
soda solutions, wbat happens when an add comes in contact with
an alkali. This experiment not only teaches children the proper-
ties of these two substances but may be of real practical signifi-
cance, at least to future cooks in the ^up, for it will enable them
to alter a redpe for sour milk when only sweet milk is to be bad.
This introduction of the practical applications of sdence also
reSects a change in the sdence teadung in the kindergarten from
the taooomic approach described earlier.

Hew the Science Program Contributes le Growth

Today, when a thinlong dtizenry is more important it
has ever been, educators realize that sdence teaching is a valu-
able means of de>‘eloping the habit of critical thipking and the
techniques of exploration. Planned, practical sdentific education,
beginning in the kindergarten, will help to provide children with
the techniques and attitudes needed by the world in which they
live. Sdence lulps diildren to understand theiz world. Even
more important, it is a tool that enables children to leam to
obsers'e in such a way that they can draw condusions.

Experiences in sdence should help also to huild respect for
the opinion of others, for sdence demands an open mind and
requires that statements or criticisms be backed up by demon-
strable proof from unbiased data. Sdence actirities also provide
an excellent opportunity for children to work in groups, to co-
operate with one another in searching for solutions, and to pool
infonnation. Sdence experiments offer good opportunities for
sodal growth, growth in respect for others as well as for the
authority of facts and unbiased information.

244 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

ChiUlTeits groiiliig bodies need much ctgorvus excrcue iii the open
oir. J/osf kindergarten plaijgroumh include such minclcdmldlng
ciiuliiinciit Hi ihaes, luiigtc gyms, mul bars But thildteii also need
Ollier kinds of play, and they can also hate fun u'lthout elaborate
apparatus. The children ihoieii below are playins a circle game
uhleh retpiires no special equipment. The boy shown below iiui
dtscoiercd that an empty barrel makes a fine scUing for dramatic
play, alone or tcilh others

Whi’it iheij fint enter kinilernarlen, niOU youiin children, like thoic
In the picture at xipper left, ere capable of onhj “paraller plaij-plaijins
bcviilc but not VM(n one another. The children iii the picture at upper
fiitht lire at the itiiga of “associaihe” play. Then hai.c diicocerea thnf^
it I* inure fun to play or ttOffc others than alone— hut their "group"
still coimsti of only tuo children. Toward the cud of the kindergarten
year, some children are capable of playing co-operatliclij in groups of
three or four, like the chtldreH in the picture below.

Proper luitntion <incl aiktituilc leu are essential to the licoltli of (he
ijoimc c/iiW. The school, of course, citnnol suiiitfu all the needs of
chihlreu in these areas, but il can proculc a lunch or mid-icssion snack
to supplement their diet, end it rnii see that cecnj period of strenuous
actiuty is balanced by a period in uhieh children are yiitct and rcloicd.
Daily obsercation by the teacher and periodic insiieclion by the school
nurse or doctor are also un]>or1unt asjKCti of the hcallh program lu the
Umlcrgarlcn. In addition to safeymarding his health, such <i roiiJjiip
teaches the ehihl that doctors and nurses are there to help fifHi

A trip to the iicareH lra[fic a ciiit from the local policeman,

a talk bij a member oj the tafely patrol, or informal discussion, giiidcJ
Inj the tcaclier, can rc4d( iii many valuable safety {earnings. The
children hi the picture above, participants in a school traffic-training
program, ate priitirig aUat theii hace learned into practice through
dramatic pluij icith their tthcci toys. The picforc 6c7oio is another
t‘xamp/c of /o2/oii'*(/p aciitii^r after a program to teach children the
rides of safety. The children, of course, cannot read the icords printed
under the picture that they hace tfractn. fciif they fciioii their meaning.

The pictures above ahoiv some of ibe remedial cetiviliei that can be
ioiidiicteU for deaf children of kindcruatlcii aRC The child at the Ufl
Is learning to (arm the “/»" souiul bij blotcmR out a fcotlirr Those at
the right arc IcamiuR to idcntlfij sounds, luth the aid of special
riiulpmvnt. The child shoan Mote Is a special school for mnitiilhi
retarded children uhich cneonranes mothers to participate

T/iro«g/« their science ttctmties, kindetQartncrs learn the nidinieixtaiy
principlo of groulh—and manij other things in the process. The feather
it> the picture abote « ouiliiunii the "plan” children iciJl folloiu in
planting tcciis “to see if then u,ill grow." .-U a result of tha aeiivity, the
children will learn a uiluahfe icchiiKfiie of "finding things otif’ which
can carry ocer to other acticilics. The child in the picture at the right
U ilcnioiu^rnlins (icr tinJerstaiKiiiig of ilic |>rmi,-i)>'c iFiaC 7>{an<» need
water, and aho her developing ohihly to assume and carry out
responsibilitij. Science atliulics in the kindcrgorfen are no longer
h?nttrJ to experiences axtl anmiai^. CiuldTcn are o^n

iiilrodiucd to such tools and toneepis of science as the magnet.

‘J'hc'ohit kiinkruartcn teacher mes ctcnj ci>i>otlu»Hii io teach children
conrcfifi of uuiidicr. In the )uclti'e at the U ft. ihechiidrcn arc perhirin-
in:j It piiKcr iihiif to the clclisht of their uulor. a iiro’.pccticc lucmher
of next i/f«r V tJwis. The t.h>U m (he picture ul the nsht (» Imnuni: to
t'Hiuit In another itwj! hij mumj; « hoard'' The children nt l/ic
plcliiro heloie arc /earning the incaning of ''ptnt~ "i/nait " "half "
i/iiarler,'’ and iiwnij other mcoiureincnl concepts Inj pminni; miter
from one coiifclncr to another.

The homemaela (bff the teacher) clock in the picture at the left ur
(tc{{)i>i{: c jiiWrcH to feum l/ic number scgnenco onJ to iJctefo}) sonic
uhoiil time. The calendar thoitn at the right, oho homemade, h
another erectile icaniinii device. Chddrcn insert a numeral every day.
Parents am and should he part of the school too In the picture belotc,
mothers arc iilipurcnlhj cnjoijing the opitorlunit'j n.sifnig day gift*
jJifin to see iihut and how l/icir children are learning

For the young child, in fact, sdcncc and social studies blend
in rich and meaningful experiences that contribute greatly to the
child's growth. It is impossible to classify one set of experiences
as belonging to the social-studies area and another to the area
of the sciences. In fact, every science experience in the kinder-
garten involves aspects of growth in many other fields. The
follow-up experiences of a train trip, for example, involve a com-
bination of science, social studies, language, number, and crea-
tive activity of all description. Most kindergaitners will want to
draw or paint trains after such a trip. Some few mature children
may even wish to make a picture book of the trip with pictures
contributed by the children and “stories’* dictated by them to
the teacher. They may wish to hear a story or sing a song about
trains.

Such a trip would probably stimubte much curiosity about
engines, be the one which pulled “tlieir” train steam or diesel
A simple experiment can show children that steam has force.
Heat some water in a test tube wbidi has a cork placed b'ghtly
in the end. When the water in the test tube boils, the steam will
push tlie stopper out Perhaps the diesel engise would be too
complicated for Jdndergartnerr to understand but they can de-
velop understandings about energy tbrouglr experimentatiQn.
A simple toy steam engine will help children to see that steam
energy can be harnessed to turn wheels.

Having experienced a train, tbiidrea often return to the
kindergaiten eager to build their own train. Fortunate is the
group of children with a teacher who can help them cany out
their ideas. This activity not only teaches building sIdUs but
fosters tlie social skills involved in group endeavor. After the
train is completed, much dramatic play will center around vari-
ous train activities. Children will taJ« turns being the engineer
or passengers— and this will involve another social learning.
Arithmetic learnings enter in when passengers need to buy
tickets. Thus an activity may cut across all the subject-matter

Experiences in Science 245

lines. It is neither possible nor desirable to classify an experience
such as this as “science,” “social studies,” or “art."

In a well-planned science program, children find answers
largely through their own investigation. Use of this problem-
soK-ing approach makes them more self^'eliant and self-confident.
The science program also helps to remove or minimize many
childhood fears. A child may be afraid of thunder and lightning
because he doesn’t understand them; but if he knows something
about their cause and how best to protect himself from possible
harm, his fear will abate or be replaced by prudence. Jersild
and Holmes * have sho^vn rather clearly that young diildreo do
not fear things that they understand or can control to some ex-
tent. If science activities had no odier aim than to help children
overcome fears, their place in the Idndergarten would be amply
Justified.

The Science Curriculum

\Vhile much of the science tead^g in londergartes is initi>
ated in response to the spontaneous ioterests of children, the
science program should not be based exclusively on such inci-
dental leaniings. If it is, science experiences will he random and
mucli valuable material will be omitted. The interests of four-
and five-year-old children ore rather limited, and certainly part
of the role of education is to widen diildren’s horizons and intro-
duce diem to new experiences.

It is difficult to enumerate specific learnings for kindergarten
children in any area, but, because it is not one of the so-called
“skill* subjects, less attention has been given to the expected
competencies in science than, for example, in reading or arith-
metic. There is yet no uniformity in science experiences for any
grade, much less kindesgarten. However, the National Society for

* Arthur T. Jcrsild and F. B. Holmes, ChJdren'i FMn, Child Dcvelopnient
htonographs. No. 20 , New Yoik, Teadten College, Columbia Uoiveirity,
1S35-

2-t6 Teacluog the Kindergartea Child

tlie Study of Education * specifies the following as areas in whicli
there should be planned experiences at every grade level, in-
cluding kindergarten:

1. The Universe—The stan, moon, sun, planets, causes of day
and night and seasonal changes, tides, eclipses, other
galactic systems beyond our own,

2. The Earth— Origin of tlie earth, formation of mountains,
erosion, volcanoes, prdiistoric life, forces whiclr have
changed and are changing the earth.

3. Conditions Necessary to Life— What living things need for
existence, how they are affected by changes in their en-
vironment, how they survive.

4. Lining Thtngs^Kinds of plants and animals, group life,
how they adapt themselves for protection, life cycles, how
they obtain food, their economic importance, and how
man infiuences nature.

5. Physical and Chemical Phenomeno-Ligiit, sound, gravity,
magnetism, and electricity; changes in matter; phenomena
associated with atmospheric changes and radiant energy.

6. Man's Attempt to Control HU Environment-Gtadeas,
farms, orchards; discoveiiesand invenb'ons; bowman con-
trols living things; study of pbces man cannot reach
directly and other related topics.

Needless to say, the experiences in each category that are
Suitable for the Idndergartner are far different from those tliat are
suitable for the sixth-grader. The young child, because of his
limited understanding, may stndy the universe merely by observ-
ing shadows and sunbeams, the changing of the seasons, the
moon, or some of the simpler constellations. The kindergarten
child may be unable to understand much about the sun other
than that it is hot, it is big, it is far away, and it helps living

* Science Education in American SchooU, FortV'Sizth yearbook, Chicago,
National SocteQ' for the Study of Education, Universi^ of Chicago, 1947,

h 75. 78.

Ezpeiieoces in Science 247

things to grow. The upper-grade child would be concerned \vith
much more complei matters, such as why the sun is hot or how
it helps living things to grow. In science as in other areas, new
learnings always build on previous experience or learnings. An
important loundation lor future learnings can be laid in the
kindergarteiL

For the landergartner, applications of scientific laiowledge
should be immediate and purposefuL The test of a good sdertce
experience for children of this a^ is not their ability to describe
it after it is over but rather their ability to use what they have
learned in some related situation. A simple experiment to answer
the question *T>o plants need water?” involving the comparison
of an. adequately watered plant with cue left unwatered will
answer the specific question, but it will also give the participants
knowledge that applies to many other living things in their en-
vironment, After sudr on experience it may be easier for Aie
child to remember to keep his puppy’s water dish filled, or to
understand the need for rain during the crop-growing season.
Small matter that the child is unable to verbalize about the ex-
periment if he can apply what be has learned. The alert teacher
will therefore provide an early opportunity for applying new
learnings. The ’'test” of the kmdergaitner’s learnings after the
experiment described above mi^l be his willingness to assume
and ability to cany out the responsibility of supplying water to
plants and animals in the kindergarten or of tending a patch in
the school garden.

The teacher who understands <duld nature uses every means
at her command to help children clarify their understanding. She
exploits children's spontaneous curiosity, but she goes beyond
and expands their existing interests. Sie plans with children for
their experiences. She uses audio-visual aids of all kinds, field
trips and excursions, experiments and discussions. She helps even
four- and five-year-olds keep some record of what they have
experienced if they express a desire to do so. The intelligent

24S Teaching the Kiitdargatten Child

teacher seizes every opportunity to develop children's concep-
tions of time and space, of quantity, and of cause and effect, by
^videning their contacts with things and forces in their environ-
ment

This means that even the kindergarten teacher needs to have
some background in science. It doesn’t mean that she must
Imow all the answers; there are things tliat teacher and children
can find out togetlier. But she must Isow where to find the
answers and how to interpret them to young children. Fortu-
nately, most children are very much interested in scientific things,
and the science of the kindergarten is simple; the teacher with
a relatively meager science background can do an effective job
of teaching in this area if she uses sound sources. Elementary
School Science end How to Teach It, by Blough and Huggett,
is a very helpful source for the teacher untrained in science. The
authors offer the following suggestions: *

1. Bead science materials on both your level and the chil-
dren’s, Keep a good science book on your desk as a
handy reference.

a. Do some of the experiments suggested for your age
group to get the “feel* of tliem.

3. Seek help with difficult problems from sdence teachers
if they are available.

4. Use the state, county, or city course of study in science
if there is one.

$. Do some of the things suggested in science books, such
as observing, collecting or visiting.

(3. Use any manuals which accompany textbooks you are
using.

7. Watch current periodicals for articles about science.

8. Observe other teachers working with children and sci-
ence.

*Clentt O. BlougU fln>^ Albert ]. Hagget^ New York, Djydea, 19S1| P- 5-

Experiences in Sdence 249

9. Avail yourself of workshops in science projects or exten-
sion courses whidi wD help you teach science more
effectively.

10. Be open minded in your approach to science teaching.

Science Equipment

Because the science program in the kindergarten is essen-
tially an outgrowth of everyday living, relatively little specialized
equipment is required. There are, however, some readily avail-
able and inexpensive materials wbidi can help to make teaching
more effective: *

CLASS^VARB-'pint and quart bottles, shallow dishes, test tubes, aquari-
ums, glass tumblers.

Toou 4 M> UABnwARE-hanunets. small saws, screw driven, pliers,
laiile, can opener, brace and bit, file, assorted and scre>vs,
wire staples, wire soeening, steel wool
EixcnucAi. suppLiEs-dry cell baKeries, flasbL'gbt, bulbs and batteries,
hot plate.

uovscHOLO CKfisncau-househoId amm onia,* vinegar, baking soda,
sugar, peioiide, salt

scmKimc SUFFUES— scale, barometer, tbennometer.

STATiOKEnv SUPPLIES— gummed labels, India ink, filing cards, ruler,
yardstick, chalk, paper clips, colored paper, thumb tacks, blotters,
rubber bands.

SfUCEU.A.NCOUS— wooden spoob, assorted boxes for storing suppUes,
tin cans with tops cleanly removed, scrap wood, sand, pebbles,
sawdust, mirror, rubber gloves, rubber balloons, strainers, sponge.

A packaged assortment of simple equipment for performing
experiments with young children is available from Sctence Kit*
Various departments of tire federal government publish bulletins
wiiid) are excellent sources for Ute teacher. A Ibt of these publi-

* Adapted from Herbert S. Ziio, Tiitt It Science, Bulletin, Washiogum,
D. C., Associatioa ior Q u l d bo od Education International, 1945, pp. 39-37.

* Use with caution.

* Staved, 'Com.'Maii&a, Krw Ytak.

250 Teaching the Kindergaiten Child

cations can be obtained writing to the Superintendent of
Documents.* Teachers may also get information on request from
such government agencies as the Department of Agriculture the
Forest Service, the Fish and Wildlife Service, tlie Weather Bu-
reau, and the National Bureau of Standards.

Problems for Discussion

1. Miss Tate says that she believes In teaching sdcoce incidentally
by waiting for children to show an interest in something before
teaching it. Mrs. Gordon believes that a good science program
requires planning. With v^hoin do you agree? Why?

а. How would you plan a science lesson arciind a (duld's question,
*^Vhat is TAin?“ What materials would you use to help chdd/cn
understand this phenomenon?

3. How would you set up a science experience to dispel fear of
shadoivs amoog a ^up of £ve-year-o2ds?

4 . Show how you would help children in the Idndctgarten use the
prohlcm-solviflg method (a) in regulating their own beliavior in
the classroom and (b) in coriog for the bools is their library
corner.

5. What arc the educational values of caring for plants or planting
a school garden for young childteD?

б. Assume that it is winter and that youi four-year-olds are specu-
lating on where snow goes in the spring. How would you proceed
to help them £nd out, using tho probicm-solving method?

7 . Wliy is a sdcacs program nltkh demands problem-solving of
children a better program than one which has diddrcn merely
identify plants and animals?

8. Write a lesson for an experience with magnets hr a group of £vo-
ycar-olds. What would be tho objcctis'cs of such a science activity?
Hmv could you evaluate the learning? How would you determine
whetlier you had accomplished tho objectives you set up?

g. Mrs. Fenton, who teaches kindergarten in a ratlier isolated rural
area, has asked you for some belp in planning her science program.
Would her program dlller in any respects from yOurs. In a dty

■ Covemment Printing Office, Washington as, D. C.

Experiences in Science 251

kindergarten? Why? \Vhal su ^ffl stions would you offer Mis. Fen-
ton?

Suggested Additional Reeding

Blough, Glenn O., and Campbell, Marjorie H., Af<ik>ng and Gs/ng
Classroom Science MalerioU in tJie Elementary School. New York,
The Dryden Press, Inc, 1954.

Blough, Glenn O., and Huggett, A, J., Elementary School Science and
How to Teach It. New Tort The Diydea Press, Inc., 1951.

Uubler, Clark, Working tiAth ChUdrea in Science. Boston, Houston
Mifflin Co., 1956.

Oakes, M. E., Childrens ExphiRations of Nflturijl Thenomena. New
York, Bureau of PublicatioDS, Teathers College, Columbia Univer-
sity, Contributions tn Education, No. gaB, >947.

Schneider, Herman, and Schneider. Nina, Left Find Out. New York,
William R. Scott, Inc., 1946.

Science Education in American Schools. Fofty-rirth Yearbook, Fart
I, Chicago, National Society for the Study of Educatioo, University
of Chicago Press, 1947.

Science for Children and Teachers. Washington, D. C., Association
for CMdhood Education Intemadonal, 1953.

Yates, R., Science a-ith Simple Things. New York, Appleton-Cestury-
Crofts. Inc., 1940.

Zitn, Herbert S. This Is Science. Bulletiii, Washington, D. C., Associa-
tion for Childhood Educatioa International, 1945.

252 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

. Developing Quantitative Concepts

A rich kindergarten environment provides, in addition to a variety
other experiences, many opportunities ior developing concepts
of quantitative relatfonships. Interest in number and its functions
is great among young chijdrea It would be quite impossible, in
fact, to keep numbers out of the kindergarten should one wish
to do so. Even the four* or five'yeax'Old needs some arithmetical
concepts in order to cany on his small affairs. He counts chairs;
he describes things as round or square or b/ggcr or smaller; lie
deals with pounds and quarts and pints, with dozens and hun*
drcds, with nickels and pennies. There is, even at this age, an
emerging knowledge of fractions. The child asks to have some-
thing cut in “hair or that he be given "part" of something. In
their play, young children are constantly dealing with number.

However, many of the ideas of young children about number
are indefinite or inaccurate. The diild speaks of “a lot;" "a few,"
more," “larger," “smaller." To the very young child, more than
two is "many” Even four- and Bve-yoar-olds become easily con-
fused in their quantitative thinking and thus err in making /udg-
ments. For example, if a dhild is given a choice between four
one-inch pieces of candy and one six-inch piece, he often chooses
the smaller pieces. Even though they add up to less than the
six-inch piece, they appear to him to be more because there are

253

lour pieces rather than one. ^nulaily, the child at this age may
prefer a nichel to a dime because the former is bigger. Or he may,
after asking his mother to cut an apple in half, request the
“biggest half." All tliese arc indiesUioos that, although the child
may appear to understand quantitative relationships, his ideas
are quite vague.

Number Objectives

In the course of exploring a well-planned kindergarten en-
vironment, the child daily experiences some aspect of number,
and the skillful teacher helps him to assimilate these experiences
into a meaningful background of understanding. The ability to
handle quantitatis'e concepts is an essential tool for living and
working in our society, probably second in importance only to
the ability to read and Hrite. The landergarten teacher does not
offer formal lessons in arithmetic, but she is constantly svafehing
for the teachable moment which occurs in all activities, when
she can clarify number concepts. She is constantly helping chil-
dren to notice differences in size, quantity, and distance and
encouraging them to use the tools of measurement and to coimt
Quantitative concepts and the in using them inevitably

grow out of experiences.

S^'stematic number teaching should start as soon as the cdiild
wants to express ideas quantitatively. This does not mean that
a specific time should be set aside in the landergarten day for
formally teaching number; it means, rather, that the teacher
should have in mind certain sidlls and understandings that she
wishes to teach and that she should plan instructional activities
around these sidlls and understandings. Number learnings should
come about incidentally, but not accidentally.

It is difficult if not impossibie to set up standards for achieve-
ment in arithmetic in the Idndergaiteo. Some children enter the
kinder^rten with a greater understanding of number than other

254 Teaching the Kindergarten

children have at the end of the luadergarten year. Hic problem
of readiness exists here as in all other areas. The kindergarten
teacher needs to be aware of the many factors whicli influence
the child's ability to understand numbers, among them his mental
age and his maturity in abstract thinldng, his general range of
information, his background of experiences with number before
school entrance, his vision, his hearing, and his general emotional
and social development.

Just as children, at a certain level of maturity, develop and
indicate a readiness to read, so also do they come to show an
interest in learning the concepts of number, size, quantity, and
related ideas. The child who sliows no interest in counting, whose
vocabulary does not yet contain such words as "half,” “whole,"
"larger than," "smaller than," and "more than," or who does not
yet know the names of many numbers is not ready to work with
number concepts. There may be some four>year>olds, and pos*
sibly even some five-year-olds, who are at this stage of develop-
ment However, most kindergarten children show an eager aware-
ness of number. Teachers who understand children are careful
not to rush them into a learning experience for which they are
not yet ready, A child who is not sufficiently mature to count
should not be called oa to display his lack of abih'ty in oumbers
before the group. Tlie child who is ready, however, should be
helped to learn about number to the limit of his capacity and
interest.

Assuming that there will be wide variation in achievement
in any group of children, Rosenquist suggests the following ob-
jectives in arithmetic for Idndergartners: ‘

a. To count to six by rote,

z. To enumerate groups of six objects,

3 . To recognfee groups of two or three simple objects with-
out counting,

* Lucy Lynde BcseDquiit, Yating ChSJm Learn to Ute Arithmetic, Kew
York, Ginn, 1949, p. 33.

Developing QuantiUtive Concepts 255

4. To use partial counting wben apprehending small groups
( six or less ) oi simple objects,

5. To use these sldlls and understandings in everyday ac-
tivities.

Another important aspect of the program of number in the
kindergarten, is to help children develop an interest in and an
appreciation of our number system. Teachers need to challenge
children with increasingly difficult situations involving numerical
concepts. The begmning number work with four- and five-year-
olds should stress not abstractions but rather social experiences
involving arithmetic and the language of number— for example,
counting the number of children who are absent, weighing, meas-
uring, noticing whether Tom is taller than Mary, and so on.
Arithmetic leanungs should spring from the child's actual expe-
rience with concrete material. ^Vilb su^ a background the child
can step more easily into experiences which depend on his ability
to handle the abstractions of number.

Learning to Count

Counting is one of the first number activities in which the
cluld engages, hiost children have bad some counting experiences
before they enter the kindergarten, but many children, even five-
year-olds, do not yet know the number sequences. Learning to
repeat the names of numbers in their proper order— that is, rote
(X)undng: 1, a, 3, .4, etc.— takes a great deal of practice. The ability
to count by rote is, of course, no indication that the child under-
stands the number s)'stem or that he can correctly identify the
number of objects in a group oc use numbers functionally in
any other way. It is, howoer, the necessary beginning. Before
the child can learn the intricate processes of arithmetic he must
know the names of the numbers and their proper sequence.

Fortunately, most )'Oung duldiea delight in counting; the
teacher need only be alert to opportunities to teach them to do

25S Teaching the Kindergarten Quid

so correctly. She need not provide much motivation; children of
this age provide their ohtj.

In teaching quantitative thinldng as in every other area, tlie
teacher must start with what the ohiM already knows and guide
him into more and more ways of dealing witli quantitative situa-
tions. A good beginning for many children is the wealth of
nursery rhymes that deal with number. Children Jove to repeat
the well-known phrases "One, Two, Button My Shoe," and doing
so can help them to leam the serial order of numbers, the uses
of numbers, and many other arithmetical concepts. Accompany-
ing the rhymes with music and action adds to the children’s
enjoyment.

Rhymes and finger plays are not only fun for children but
can introduce them to the vocabulary of numbers os wed as to
other aspects of quantitative thinking. 'Ihe following rhymes *
have been selected on the basis of these criteria. The children
will have excellent ideas for acting them out

1. Here’s a ball-
Aad here’s a bad—

And a great big ball I see—

Shall we count them? Are yea ready?

One, two, three.

3. My daddy is big, my daddy is strong.

And his steps— like this— are lai^ and long;

My mother's a lady, so dainty and nice.

When daddy steps once, my mother steps hvice.

1 hold both their hands and sh'p and keep pace;

I play I’m a pony running a race.

3. Sometimes I am tall.

Sometimes I am smaQ,

Sometimes I am very, very uQ,

Sometimes I am very, very smaO,

Sometimes smaQ, sometimes tall,

See how 1 am now.

* Contnbided by the staS and students of the College of education, Uni*
vetsity of Tennessee, and the Institute of Child Weliare, University of
Minnesota,

Developing Quantitative Concepts 257

4- Fee, fi. fo, fum—

Measure my arm.

Measure my nose.

Measure myself
Way down to my toes.

5. Ten chubby fingers.

Ten chubby toes.

Two shining eyes.

And one Lttle nose,

T\va listening ears.

One sodding head.

Shut sleeping eyes.

And go off to bed.

6. Here are two tall telephone poles,

Between them a wire is stnmg.

Two little birds are flying by.

They hopped oo the wire and s\vung.

To and fro, to and fro.

They hopped on the wire aod swung.

7. Old Dan has hvo eyes.

Old Dan has two ears,

Old Dan has one mouth with many, many teeth.
Old Dan has four feet.

Old Dan has four hoofs.

Old Dan has one tail with many, many hairs.
Old Dan can walk, walk, walk.

Old Dan can ^t, trot, trot.

Old Dan can run, run, ran many, many miles.

8. Five little rabbits under a log.

This one says, ''Hark, 1 hear a dog.**

This one says, “Ha, 1 see a man."

This one says, “Run, ran while you can.”

This one says, “Ko, Tm not afraid.“

This one says, “Stop, keep in the shade.*

The man passed by— "Were still alive,"

Said the funny little raiUiils,

And they ran, all five,
g. Ten little soldiers standmg in a tow.

They all bow down to the captain so.

258 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

They march to the left, they march to tlie ri$lit,
They all stand straight quite ready to fight,
Along comes a man \s-ilh a great big gun.
'Bang,'* you ought to see those soldiers run.

10. Five httlo mice on the panliy Boor,

Seeking for bread-crumbs or something more;
Five little mice on the shelf up high,

Feasting so daintily on a pie—

But the big round eyes of the wise old cat
See uhat the five little mice are at.

Quickly she jumps— but the mice run away
And hide in their snug little holes all day.

11. Father and mother and chddicn three
Living in a house we see

All as husy as bees

For they are iho finger family.

Father plays the violin.

Klother plays the flute.

Little Billy plays the horn
Toot, toot, toot

11. Tick, tock, tick, tock.

Merrily sings the dock.

It's time for work,

It's time for play.

So it rings throughout the day.

Tide, tock, lick, tock.

Menily sings the clock.

13. iThumh]

This little boy has a very round face.

[index faxger}

This little boy stands tall in his place.
lUlddlf /inger]

This little boy is a giant so gic.-it
[ning /ingerj

This little boy lias come in just too late.
llMtUs finger]

Hill Lttle boy can stand up all alone
And ho says to the first, ^Iow fat you's'e

Dewloping QuantiUUve CoaKpts 253

14 - [Creep doicn over knee leiih index and middle fingenj
Tis all the way to too town.

Beyond the knee-high hill
That baby has to tra\'el don'n,

To sec the soldicn dnU.

[Count toes]

One, two. three, four, five in a row,

A captain and his men
[Count ogoin]

And on the other side, you know.

Are six. seven, eight, nine, ten.

ig. Five little squirrels sat in a tree.

Said the first little squinel.

[Left-hand thumb]

“IVhat do I see?"

Said the second little squiird,

[Index yinger]
see a gun."

Said the third little squirrel,

[Middle finger]

*Ohl Let's runt*

Said the fourth little squirrel.

[Ring finger]

"Let's hide in the sbadel"

Said the fifth little squineL
[Lifffe finger]

"I’ni not afraidi"

[Clap hands]

When bang! went the gun
And how those sqxtirrek did tunl

Be ginnin g with nursery rhymes and finger plays, the child
associates numbers with parts of the body. He counts his fingers,
his toes, his eyes and ears. Then he associates number with other
things in his environment— with the wheels on a car, the number
of people in his family, the pennies he has for candy— and with
stories in which number plays a part, such as “The Three Bears.”
In school he counts the number of napkins needed at juice time.

260 Teaching the Kindergattai Child

He counts the number of children who are required for a game
or absent from school.

The child learns first to count units. Only later is he able
to recognize a group of objects. Adults do not have to count
such groups as

or

They can tell at a glance that the first group is composed of six
units, the second of five. The older kindergarten child is just
beginning to develop this ability to perceive groupings. After
much experience in grouping objects, the child may become able
to associate symbols with objecls-to recognize that the number 3
stands for three objects. He may even be able at this stage to
arrive at a realization that if three bears are added to three bears
there will bo six bears. However, it is only some time after he
has passed kindergarten age that the child is capable of manipu-
lating arithmetical symbols which are completely abstract.

Teachers can give children practice in counting and in recog-
nizing groupings by asking for 'five blocks' or 'two chairs' or
"three green crayons." By the end of the kindergarten year, many
five-year-olds not only can recognize the numbers through ten
hut have developed sufficient skill to write some of them.

Various devices can be used to develop counting ability^
Some kindergarten teachers encourage children to “compose
number stories with colored beads. The child strings, for example,
three yellow beads, four red. six green, and two blue. Then he
tells a story about them to the other children; “Once there wwe
three bears and four wolves and six birds, etc. This helps e
child learn not only to count but also to identify colors and to
express himself to the group.

A number board, purchased or fashioned from plywood can
help children learn the concepts of “one-ness,' “two-ness,” and
so on. The numbers are on one side of the board and opposite

Devek^ing Quantitative Concepts 261

each number are holes for pegs. By associating a specific number
of pegs with the appropriate number symbol, the child learns the
concept of quantity.

Learning the Ordinol Use of Numbers

In addition to learning to count, or to identify the number
of objects in a group, children need to Imow something about
the relative position of each number in the whole series of
numbers. They need to know, in other words, both that 5 identi-
fies the number of objects in a group and that it is one less than
6 and one more than 4.

These two ideas expressed by a number are called, respec-
tively, the cardinal, or quantitative, meaning, and the ordinal,
or serial, meaning of that number. The two meanings are vaguely
differentiated in the child’s thinking before be is able to express
them in language. "Attaching number names to quantities helps
him to distinguish one quantity from another, and the ideas
become clearly defined as he discovers examples of them in his
activities with quantities. For example, he sees that the fifth ebair
Is next to the foiirth chair, and that there is a group of five
because there are five chairs in itT *

Understanding of the ordinal and cardinal meanings of num-
bers is essential to an understanding of the fundamental processes
involved in arithmetic. The kindergarten teacher must, therefore,
give the child a firm basis of understandings before sending him
on to first grade.

Applying Quantitative Concepts

The kindergarten child is having many experiences with
number and he is beginning to understand the significance of
number in bis life. He is begmoing to see that being able to
express quantitative ideas helps him to make himself imderstood.
* Rosenqoist, op. cU., p. 5.

262 Teaching the Kinder^rten Child

In his kindergarten experience, the child develops concepts
of “adding to," "taking away from," and comparing contents. la
their play, cliildren fill cups, pails, boxes, and Jars with sand,
water, or eortli. They pour the contents from one container to
another or take part of them away. They may empty a small pail
of sand into a larger one and find tliat more sand needs to be
added in order to fill the bigger pail. As tlie result of sucJi
experiences four- and five-year-olds begin to use— and more im-
portant, to understand— such relative terms as "much," “little,"
“more," "less," “heavier," "lighter," "part,” and “add to."

The young child Icams concepts of fractioBs by experiences
in diriding tilings into parts. He cuts a ribbon in half so that a
friend may have a pieces he cuts a piece of paper in txvo so that
he can make two pictures instead of one; be breaks his candy
into more or less equal pieces so tlial he can share it with three
of his hiends. He docs not yet recognize the symbols % or
but he has incorporated the words to describe them into his
vocabulary and ho has at least some understanding of their
meaning. The teacher encourages these activities, for she knows
that they will help the child to acquire readiness for learning
more complex quantitative concepts in first grade.

Learning Money Values

Kindergarten cliildrcn often have ^xy vague ideas concern-
ing money values. Understandings her© as elsewhere are depend-
ent oa experience. It may be that middle- or upper-class children,
who have had more money to handle, develop understandings
at an earlier age than children from the lower socioeconomic
class. There is some evidence that Judgments conceming the size
of nickels, dimes, etc. are related to socioeconomic class, the
lower-class child having a tendency to Judge them as being
larger than they actually are.* The kindergarten extends children’s

*t" P. Carter and K. Scliooler, "Value Need and Other Factors in Per-
ception," Psycitchgic^ Be\Ae<p, 194a LVI, soo-oj.

Developing Quantitative Concepts 263

understanding by giving them as many eiperiences involving
money as possible. The group may make a trip to the store to
buy juice or crackers for lunch. Or the children may deposit
money in the school bank or bring money to purchase something
at the school store. All these occasions are opportunities for hav-
ing important, meainngful experiences with our monetary system.

Legrning Time and Space Retotionships

The child’s ideas of time and space relationships are de-
veloped through planned experiences in the kindergarten. The
alert teacher attention to variation in sizes in the group—
John is taller than Mary; Sue is bigger than James. Children use
and manipulate objects of various sizes and shapes.

The kindergarten child is interested in the clock. He observes
tune relationshlps-after recess comes rest, when the big hand
of the clock is oo la and the small one on lo. Often he knows
what ‘bedtime'’ looks like on the clock, or 'getting-up time,” or
'school time.” A few mature five-year-olds may even have a rudi-
mentary knowledge of telling time. The teacher should capitalize
on this interest of children by having available in the kinder-
garten a large, fuocUoniag clock and, if possible, at least one
toy clock winch rhil drm can manipulate themsdves. An effective
toy clock can be made from plywood, with inexpensive metal
house numbers used to indicate the hours. Simple hands, cut
from wood, should be attached with a nut, bolt, and lock washer
so that they do not tighten when children manipulate them.

A toy clock such as this can be compared to the regular room
clock. This teaches children to see likenesses and differences, an
important skill in learning to read, and also familiarizes them
with the sequence of numbers up to la. The kindergarten teacher
may set the clock for juice time, for example, telling the children
that when the room clock gets to look like the toy one it is time
for the scheduled activity.

A home-made clock jigsaw piiole can also help to familiarize

264 Teaching the Kindogaiteo Child

children witli clock s>mbol$. They can cousuU tbo room clock
for help in putting the puzzle together and thereby get added
experience witli the “design’* of clocks.

Kindergartners arc also greatly interested in the ealendar.
The four* or five-year-old may measure time by intervals between
holidays or by the rchUonship of some event to Ids birtliday.
The teacher should lake adv-anUgc of ddidren’s interest in Umo
rclationslups by making available a wooden or cardboard calen-
dar on whicli cldldren can note the passage of da>-s, wee^, and
monllij and the approacli of birtlida}’s and holidays. Noting Uie
dal© can become a daily acUrity.

A satisfactory calendar can be made of plywood, witli Uie
numliers l to 31 painted with enamel on cut-out plywtiod squares.
Thin strips of wood tacked across Uie calendar face will Iiold
the squares in place. A calendar such as this can be used for any
montli. Putting the proper date square in place becomes an
important daily ritual for Umj children. ^

In these ways, the teacher builds on llic kindergartners
natural Interest in lime, space, and number to give 1 dm a ridi
background of quantitative experiences. Increasing Uio child s
fund of quantitaU\o understandings is the cldcf business of the
kindergarten in this arex Tlie child who enters Erst grade with
Eucli a background is more likely to be able to handle Uie aiilli-
melic concepts presented to him tlicrc, and less likely to dc\elop
the dislike of ariUuncUc which comes from a failure to under-
stand it

PrebUcni for Discussion

I. la l«f Undcisartcn Miss Carter has « clwk puedo which slio
f«U UIp* lu increase the ch.Ureus quaat.UIno and niuncncil
uiulcnUiklings. WTial sixeific leaniingi miglit result from cqicil-
enc« with such a puzde?

X Questwu a lout- Of £ise->«af-t>U to see if >t«i can find out swne-
thuij about lus quaiiUtatise utidentandlng*.

DcsvloptoS QuantiUtive Concepts C63

The latter source has prepared the table below to sbo%v the
number of children wth marked deviation of various types
in 1947.

Number of Exceptional ChUdren of Each Type
per ifioo Children

Type*

dumber per

1,000 children

IdentsUy retarded and doiir4canung

50

Crippled (including cardiacs)

2

Blind

K

Partially seeing

2

Deaf or deafened

1

Hard-of-hearing

40

Behavior problem (maladjusted)

20

EpilepUo and convulrive disorders

20

Glandular deficient

140

Defective la speech

120

Lowered vitality

150

In addition to these handicapped children, the National
Society estimates that some 2 per cent of the school population
can be classified as mentally gifted. These children too may need
some special treatment in school.

Aldiou^ specific estimates of the number of exceptional
children of school age vary widely, authorities agree that there
are many children who require special adjustments in their edu*
cational environment Such children, it should be remembered,
may have all the problems and needs common to “unexceptional"
children in addition to those associated with their particular
atypical development. No less than other children, and perhaps
more, the handicapped need affection, acceptance, and approval.

26S Teaching the Kindeigaiteii Child

And like other children, exceptional children need a facilitating
environment

The teacher’s responsibility to understand them and to pro-
vide for their individual needs is at least as great as her responsi-
bility toward other children. ITiere is perhaps no better indica-
tion of the teacher’s sensitivity to the needs of individuals than
the provisions she makes for handicapped or deviating children.
Teachers who cannot readily accept deviant children do not
belong in the profession. In any school ^oup a few children Vtill
require some special consideratioD, even if they are not, sbictly
speaking, *Tiandicapped." If a teacher is unable or unwilling to
adapt to such a situation, she is not in a position to help the
children or their parents.

There appears to be very little research or published material
available on the exceptional child under the age of six. Yet
perhaps no part of the eotlro educational system is better able
to care for the needs of exceptional children than the kinder-
garten. Because there is no fonnal body of subject matter that
four- or five-year-old children must cover, the teacher is free to
arrange activities and to adapt the program to tlie individual
needs of her pupils in a way not possible at any other level in
the school. The nature of available equipment, the teacher's in-
genuity, and her imderstanding of the problems of deviant chil-
dren are usually the only factors which can limit the development
of good educational experiences for these children. And the
importance of recognizing the exceptional child and providing
experiences which will minimize or help him to adjust to his
deviation early in his school career can certainly not be debated.

Nursery-school and kindergarten experience it has been
found, is especially valuable and "particularly necessary for ex-
ceptional children who suffer marked sensory defects, who come
from underprivileged homes, who suffer severe emotional tension
or show marked tendencies toward social maladjustment’ * Being
in a kindergarten often means riiat the child meets sympathetic

• ibid., p. 337 ,

The Exceptional Child 269

understanding and objectivity in dealing with his problems for
the first time in his life. It also may mean that his difficulties >viU
come under earlier study and observation. Children with prob-
lems, as we have said, need affedion, protection, and security;
they need to feel that they belong to the group. A well-planned
kindergarten can provide for these needs so that by the time he
enters first grade tlie child is much better adjusted to the group
and more ready to profit from the learning situation.

Stinchfield-Hawk,^ in a study of visually handicapped chil-
dren, found evidence that nuisery-s<diool training raised the intel-
ligence quotient of the children. He concluded that the educa-
tional retardation of these children can be reduced by beginning
their education during the preschool years. The Heiders * found
that nursery-school experience is even more beneficial to blind
and deaf children than it is to normal children.

The School's Rospentibllily for Exeeptlenol Children

The National Society for the Study of Education * has made
perhaps the clearest statement of the school's responsibility
toward deviant children:

Angrams and semces which are esseoCial to meet the seeds
of difierent types of ezceptional duidren should, in general,
make specific provisions for: early identification, or finding them;
prevention, in so far as it is possible, of accidenb, diseases, and
unfortunate experiences which may cause disability or affect
negatively the strong emotions; ^rfy and complete diagnosis to
determine each child's capacities, limitations, and needs; edu-
cation and training which will challenge each child's capacities
and interests and at the same time be adapted to his maturation

* S. Stinchfield-Haw k, “Speed Traixung fw Visually Handicapped Children,'
Outlook for the Blind, 1944. XXXVIU, 39-41.

*Fr)tz Heider and G. hi. Heider. “Stwlies of Preschool Deaf Childien,"
Volta Reciew, Klay 1943, XL, 157-69.

■ Education of Handicapped ChUdren, Forty-ninth Yearbook, Chicago, Na-
tional Society for the Study Education, Universi^ of Chicago Press,
>95°. II. 3a9-

270 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

level acd to those factors whic^ may retard or limit learning
ability. Finally, all programs for exceptional children must pro-
vide for excellence in nurture in all areas of the child’s physical
health, mental grosvth, and social experience.

"Early Identification"

The kindergarten teacher plays an exceedingly important
role in the identification of handicapped children. Today the sig-
nificance of this aspect of her responsibility is widely recognized.
Many a diSculty which might otherwise develop into a serious
and permanent disability may be cured or minimized if it is
recognized when the child first enters school. With our present
knowledge of child growth, we can detect many problems and
begin remedial measures when the child is very young. Even if
the diild’s disabilities are such that they cannot be removed, early
idenUfication of diem, before the child develops sodal sensitivity
and emotioual reactions to his handicap, will help to prevent him
from experiencing the feelings of frustration, inferiority, with-
drawal, or other maladjustment usually associated with deviance.

Few kindergarten teachers, of course, are qualified to diag-
nose children’s emotional or physical handicaps. But if a teacher
observes her group closely and jots down what she believes to be
significant items of behavior slie can be of great help to the
school physician or nurse in spotting children who have problems.
If a child always seems to be pushing other children aside so
that he can get closer to the picture book or toy, he may be
having difficulty in leanung to respect the rights of others-or
he may have a vuual defect A child who always appears to be
unresponsive may have a behavior problem— or he may have a
hearing defect, or be retarded mentally. (Very often children
who do not hear well are misjudged as being behavior problems
or slow mentally. They may appear to disregard what the teacher
is saying when they are actually unable to bear it )

Poor hearing is one of the most difficult disabilities to detect

Ihe Exceptional Child 271

because children very often develop compensations for it Thus
it may masquerade as many other things. And, of course, many
children do not listen carefully. The teacher may have become
so accustomed to the child’s saving “^Vhat?" that she does not
realize the possible significance of the repeated question.

If, after the teacher has made sure that the child is hearing
adequately, he is still not responding, she may suspect that
he is mentally retarded. Some children, of course, are genuinely
apathetic or dependent, perhaps because they have been over-
protected at home. But in others excessive d ulln ess and inability
to take a lively interest in activities in the kindergarten may
indicate mental deficiency. Some children come from homes of
generally low average mentality, where deviation from the normal
is not so noticeable, When they become part of the kindergarten
group the deviation becomes much more apparent The teadrer
must observe the child closely, especially in situations which
require ori^nal thinking, to determine whether he is mentally
retarded. If she suspects that be is, she refers him to the proper
specialist.

At the other extreme in mental ability are tbe gifted. Accord-
ing to the Forty-sixth Yearbook,’ “The mentally gifted, tlie re-
tarded, and tbe maladjusted constitute an equally involved and
complicated problem." Until recently, the retarded and the mal-
adjusted have fared somewhat better educationally than the
mentally ^ted. The ^ted child often is so capable of solving
liis own problems that he receives little attention from the teacher
unless his boredom drives him into becoming a behavior problem.
He may manage himself so well in the kindergarten that the
teacher tends to overlook his needs. Yet even wthout standard-
ized tests of intelligence the gifted child can be identified by the
observant teacher. He is the child who seems to possess more
than the average ability to handle abstractions, to solve problems
in a unique way, to bring new and interesting ideas into a dis-
^ Earl^ Childhood Education, ot/. y B .

272 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

cussion. He is the child who seems more able than most children
to apply past experience in the solution of present problems.
Generally gifted children excel in insights and understandings
and make adjustments rather easily. They tend to have superior
ability in expressing tliemselves.

Such children should be given every opportunity to develop
these abilities. They should be given responsibilities and tasks
which diallenge tlieir tliinking and, above all, they should be
given many opportunities to express their ideas and to try them
out. This does not mean tliat the child who is above average in
ability should be permitted to bully others or always to be the
leader of the group; in the informal atmosphere of the kinder-
garten, groux}S are fluid and leadership changes. Some gifted
children may have difficulty in working with other children be-
cause they think so rapidly that they become impatient with the
fumbling efforts of others who are slower than they are. The
gifted need to learn to work with otlieis, but they also need to
he alon&-peihaps more than the average child. Teachers should
be aware that creative thiniang very often requires solitude.
They should not insist tliat every child participate in every group
activity.

The above-average child can become a sort of consulting
engineer for group projects. For solitary work, he should have
access to puzzles which ore more intricate and difficult than those
for the rest of the group, paper-construction work which requires
more than ordinary ability, and other materials and activities
adapted to the capaddes of the superior child. Some gifted
children may show an interest in reading or writing during their
kindergarten year. Although teaching this subject matter is not
within the province of the kindergarten, such an interest should
he channeled and encouraged. Gifted children may want to
write on their pictures or dictate a short story to the teacher.
Every encouragement ought to be given to these activities. Often
bright children are unusually cTeative %vith language and they
are capable of producing some interesting stories or poems.

The Exceptional Child 273

Beha\ioral “problem children* are dilEcuIt to identify in the
kindergarten because much bclurvaor that would indicate disorder
or maladjustment in an adult or older child is typical and there-
fore essentially normal for a cluld of kindergarten age. But
kindergartners vary a great deal m the extent to which they
are socialized. Close observation will help the teacher discover
whether a child's apparent deviation is consistent %vith Ills general
les'el of des-elopment or whether it is something requiring at-
tention.

"Prevenften at Accidents, Otseases, ond
Unfortunate Experiences"

The kindergarten teacher plays a role in the preventioa
program. She should at all times observe, and help children to
observe, the rules of safety so that aeddents will be avoided.
She also teaches children to avoid spreading or catching con-
ta^ous diseases by using their handkerchiefs when coughing or
blowing noses, washing their hands frequently, and obe>’ing
the doctor when ill. Children of kindergarten age character-
istically have a great many respiratory and other communicable
diseases. Although fesv deaths are caused by these childhood
ailments,' serious complications, such as rheumatic fever, pneu-
monia, and heart disease, can result unless proper medical care
is provided. The teacher should do ever>'thing in her power to
help children to avoid or minimize the efiects of illnec^-

The kindergarten teacher should be aware not only of chil-
dren's physical needs but also of their psychological needs. She
must warmly accept each child and ^vc to each affection to
satisfy his particular “hunger,* neither overwhelming the child
who seems to need very little nor starving the child who needs
a great deal She works always to m aintain a comfortable, facili-
tating environment where duldieii feel free and secure.

* Rath Stiaog; An IiUrodactton ta ChiU Stud{/, New York, ifacmiOaii, iSSr.

P> 323.

274 Teaching the Idndergaiteo Child

"Eotly and CompUt* DiognoU*"

Foitunato is Uio school system which includes on its stall a
nurse, physician, and psychiatrist or psychologist More and more
o{ our scliools are adding such specialists to their staff, but many
are iinanciaJIy unable to do so. In sdiools witliout specialized
services for deviant duldrcn, the teacher obviously has greater
responsibility for making tentative diagnoses and referrals.

Some scitools liavo preschool 'round-ups” in the spring at
which time all children who will be emollcd in the following
school year ore given examinations by local physicians who volun-
teer their services. ^Vhile many of tlicso examinations are hurried
and rather superficial, llicy may tcs-cal unsuspected difficulties
which can be remedied before the cliild even enters kindergarten.

"Edgcotlen end Training"

Providing 'education and training wlUch will challcngo each
child's capacities and interests* is logically the business of the
school at c\'cry lc\-cL For some deviant children, this may require
rcfcnal to a special department of the scliool for at least part
of the scliool day. Children wlto arc unable to profit from regular
classroom Instruction or who need highly specialized care may
spend all their time away from other children, in spedoi scliools
Or classes.

More and more educators ore coming to believe that deviants
need to associate with normal children and Uiat tlicy should be
integrated with a regular group for at least part of the day. But
some children coiuiot bo successfully introduced into a class of
normal youngsters.

Many exceptional children have several handicaps. “In prac-
tically all fields of the exceptional there is an average of at least
two otlier handicaps per child.”* Altliough it might be possible

* Ilury Baker, Intrvdx/ctkm lo Exceptional Children, rev. ed.. New York,
Macmillan, I9sa. p. 459.

Tlie Exceptional Child 273

to place a child with, for example, a hearing defect in a claas of
normal children, a cliild wth both visual and auditory handicaps
would derive little profit from an average class. For some excep-
tional children \vith mvdtiple defects, even special classes may
not be the answer. A child who is both deaf and partially seeing
mi^t be out of place in a group of deafened children who
can see.

Another problem is posed by the children who are handi-
capped, but not quite severely enough to qualify them for spe-
cialized training. Ironically, as Baber points out, children who
are rather severely handicapped generally receive a much better
education than those who are only mildly handicapped.'*

Perhaps the solution for these problems is to study each
child individually before assigning him to a special class rather
than to arbitrarily place all children with a certain type of handi-
cap la a given group. Ideally, the child should be placed to the
group in which be derives most benefit It may be necessary for
the hard-of-hearing child to be with similarly handicapped chil-
dren so that he can learn, \vith the help of specialists, what sound
Is. But perhaps he also needs to be with normal children for part
of the day.

Integrating the deviant child into a group of norma] children
sometimes presents certain problems in human relations, but the
skillful teacher fan turn these problems into opportunities for
transnutting important social learnings. Young children are curi-
ous about almost everything, and the appearance of a “diFerent*
classmate is no exception. Children often appear to be unkind
because so many of their remarks are brutally frank. However,
if the teacher genuinely accepts deviating children, the other
children in the group will leam to accept them. The teacher can
prepare the way for the integration of an exceptional child by
discaissing differences among other children in the group— for
example, in color of hair or eyes, size, etc. Pointing out such dif-

p. 4di.

276 Teaching the Kindergarten

fcrcnccs, and dcmunitnting (o die cliildrcn Uut many people
arc scmiUic about them, will help the children to Icom toler-
ance and tact Fortunately, mort “four*" and "fives" accept other
cluldrcn rather readily, cipccially if lluj rdalionsliip between
teacher and children is a good one.

"Nurfur* in All Araoi"

T1)0 nurture of hraidiy cldldrco is in a sense llw subject of
tills entire book. If it Is to accomplish this goal, the school
must conren) itself lirimarily viiU) Otildren rallier tlun with
organization and administration. It must empliasizc good mental
and physical hygiene for cliildrcn by controlling Ujc emotional
as well as tlic pliysical factors in U>c learning environment.

Good hygiene in the classroom begins with accepting the
child as bo is, with Ids problems as w'ell as liis potentialities;
it means working witli liim and guiding lum so llut liis full
mental and physical poicntialiUes are realized. It also involves
concern for the cmotioiu of the cIultL

Tlic scliool has a responsibility for tlio menial licaltli of all
cliildren, wbether liandicapjied or not, as well as for tlicir physical
hcaltk Because we liavc no cicar-cut criteria of "normal" emo-
tional and mental heaitli, we aro limited in resources. But this
docs not mean ilut we cannot give wme help. Errors will Inevi-
tably bo made, but the only alternative is to avoid action alto-
gctlicr, which ultimately miglU wcU prove to be a greater mistake.

7ha Schoot and fh« Parsnti of OeWont Children

Tile sdiool lias anotlicr responsibility in the iiandiing of
exceptional children besides those described above. It must help
Uic parents of such deviants to accept their children and to
enable Uio children live as satisi)'ing a life ns tiossiblc.

Unfortunately, many parents seem unable to accept the
handicaps of their children; many ore so disappointed by the

The Exceptional Child 277

child’s inability to fulfill their hopes and expectations that they
forget the nee^ of the child. But the way in which the deviant
child handles bis problems depoxds in large part on the way in
which his parents— and his teachers— act toward him. This is true
for all children who liave problems— the partially seeing, the
bard-of -bearing, the crippled, arid tlMise ^vith behavioral difficul-
ties. The behavior of these children, like that of all other children,
reflects the emotional climate surrounding them. This climate
is created by the personalities and altitudes of die adults around
them and by their understanding of and consideration for the
children's feelings and needs.

Inability of the parents, through pride or ignorance, to face
up to their child’s handicap may lead them to deny the child
the special treatment and attention he needs. The parents of a
slow learner, for example, may attempt to explain away the
child’s difficulty on the grounds of his frequent illness and ab-
sence from school and so may refuse to permit the child to
take advantage of the special educational provisions for slow
learners. The parents of a child with behavioral problems may
argue that the child has been "spoiled' and will get over it.
Unwillingness to believe that the child is defective may even
result in parental neglect of the child’s physical difficulties.
An infected ear may go untreated because "Bill’s grandmother
always had a running car and he takes after her in many ways.'
A child whose hearing is so impaired that be needs to spend
at least part of bis school day with a special teacher may have
a parent who deliberately refuses to recognize the hearing prob-
lem in the belief that putting the child in a "special room' will
stigmatize him. Perhaps more important, the parent feels that
the child’s stigma will be attached to him, the parent, also.

Often a conference with the teacher c an help parents to
recognize the need for early treatment of tlieir child’s disabilities.
Perhaps it is fortunate that roost parents are very eager for their
children to read well; the fact that the child’s difficulty may slow

278 Teaching the Kindergarten Quid

his rcaditig development may persuade the parents to take reme-
dial measures where other reasoning fails.

In schools in which deviant diildren are integrated cither
completely or partially with normal children, kindergarten teachi
ers can help parents to understand the problems— and the assets—
of their children. Whatever the nature and extent of liis handicap,
virtually every child has some positive feature which can be
emphasized. A child who is crippled may possess superior intel-
lectual ability; a child who is mentally retarded may have a very
engaging personality. Tea^Jiers can help parents to recognize
tlieir cliilds strong points so that they can more easily accept his
handicap and help the cliild to do so.

In many communities in which publicly supported facilities
are not available, parents are forming groups to improve the
opportunities of their j-oung handicapped children. For children
whose handicaps make it inadvisable or impossible for them to
bo integrated into the regular school groups, some parents have
organized and supported a special school, with the assistance ol
various community agencies and pliilanthropic organizations or
individuals. Parents are encouraged to participate in the activities
of these schoob to improve their uDderstanding of their cliildren.
Working with other parents of handicapped children may help
a parent to become more uodentanding of and sympathetic
toward his own child. In some Idodcrgartens for deviant children,
parents participate in a weekly discussion period with scliool
personnel. This brings the school and the home close together
in the mutual cilort to improve the educational opportunities for
exceptional cluldrcn.

The so-called “Heartbreak School” sponsored by the Adult
Education Department of the Fresno (Calif.) City Schools, is on
example of what can be done to help mentally handicapped clul-
drcn of preschool age and their parents. “Actually," says the
director, “Uie parents are the pupils. Tlie youngsters are tlic
laboratory, or the functioning part of the schooL" The mother
of every chi'Ai enrofi'ed I'n C&o school is required to attend a.

The Erocptional Child 270

special evening class held once a week and to spend one after-
noon a week in the nursery schooL Most of the parents agree
that they have “developed a feeling of relief by assodatioa %vith
other mothers and fathers of mentally retarded children.”

Behavioral Deviatieni

DUfercnces of opixdon about methods of handling excep-
tional children are nowhere more evident than in our- attitude
toward children who manifest behavioral deviations. For some
diildren what appears to be on the borderline of “bad” be-
havior may be “normal.” For others it may be indicative of diffi-
culty. Consider, for example, the child who is tau^t at home,
as some children arc, that fighting is a satisfactory way of set-
tling (Mcrenccs, as contrasted with the child who in the past
has solved his difficulties by some better means and who sud-
denly resorts to the use of physical force. Although the first child
needs help in learning better ways of working and playing with
others, fighting represents his normal behavior. He is acting as
he has been taught to act For the second child, the same kind
of behavior indicates that something is causing him to regress
in his ability to adjust to others. For behavior is caused, and per-
sonality maladjustments are learned.” This means, of course, that
bcluvior must be studied, not merely classified, if wc are to help
the child in his adjustment.

A cliild's behas'ior cannot be judged by his actions in a fov
situations only. Many children who are problems at home be-
come “angels" at scliooL For some the reverse is true. Adjust-
ment is a matter of degree. Just as perfect adjustment is an un-
known quality, complete maladjustment is rare and pcriups non-
existent

Bcliav-ior paUems in duldrcn wluch may result in serious
** Fmoo, C&UomU, Bee, February 14. )9S7.

xWtliUsi H. KJpaCrkk. Philctophy of ^uaUian, New York. MMauUaa,
‘95». P- 70.

^0 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

disabilities in later life may appear to the teacher to be desirable.
Children who are quiet, neat, and peaceable may seem like
angels to the harassed teacher, but the shy, mthdraivn child,
the child who is too neat or exacting, the child who never fights
or quarrels with others may become the neurotic adult Such
behavior is not “nonnal” for children, however desirable it may
appear to the teacher. Fewer serious maladjustments result from
the noisy, boisterous behavior which teachers find annoying. The
child who is very aggressive or noisy may he masking a problem
by his actions, but more likely he is merely “acting his age."

Many factors relating to home and family may infiuence the
behavior of children. Many children have experienced divorct^
and all that it may entail, even before entering kindergarten.
Some children axe rejected or neglected by their parents; some
have experienced the deaUi of a parent. Differences in religion
between parents, the child's posidon in the family in relation to
older or younger siblings, the birth of a sibling, the fact that a
child is adopted-all these factors may affect behavioral adjust*
meat Tlie classroom teaclier can handle some problems by giving
the child opportunities to work out his aggressions or feelings of
hostility by no more complicated mechanism than a punching
bag, or she may merely supply a sympathetic and imderstanding
ear to help the child adjust to bis difficulties. Other children need
the help of specialists.

The Mentally Retarded

Although estimates of die percentage of mentally retarded
diildrcn in the school-age population range from 2 to 5 per cent,'*
in many communities the mentally retarded child is denied early
school experiences because of the lack of publicly supported

>*J/c!ping Parerut UnJerstanJ Oa Eieeptional Child, Hoceedings of the
Annual Spring Conference on EJocatkm end (ha Exceptional Child.
Langtiome, Pconjj'h'aQia, Child Research Cliftio of the tVoodx School,
May issa. p. 37-

The Exceptional Child 2S1

facilities for Iiis education. Today only alwut ii per cent of all
mentally retarded boys and prU arc being adequately served
by spcdal programs of education. Tlwic arc even fewer cduca*
tional fadlitics for mentally Iwmdicappcd cliilJrcn under the ago
of six.

It is dilDcult to diagnose llie extent of mental retardation in
very young children. In many instances other complicating fac-
tors, such as shyness or general Insecurity witlj a strange person,
may be present when the child is tested. Nevertheless, mere ob*
servation confirms lire fact tliat ilicrc arc wide variations among
the mentally retarded, in range of abilities and In needs and
problems. It Is probable that the more severely retarded will
have to be eared for elsewhere tl^an in the public scliool. How*
ever, many children who have diOiculty adjusting to the learning
situation must be the responsibility of the schools,

The slow-lcaming child usually has the same basic needs
and the same general appeasamce as other children. Ho feels the
same need to succeed and the sonur desire to learn, provided
that die tasks set for him are not beyond his ability. The cltild
who is low in academic ability Is rrrost like other children in
physical abilities and emotional reactions and least like Ids peers
in his ability to handle abstractions and symbols. The retarded
child may run and jump as well as those of his own chronological
age, but be fares less well in language activities. This type of
child, then, needs many exjscricnccs which are concrete, acUvi*
tics wliich give him the sense experiences of hearing, smelling,
and touching. Within the range of bis abiliUcs, the slowdcaming
child can perform well, and if be has genuinely worked at his
highest level he should be ^vco adequate recognition for what
he has accomplished, even if Ids performance appears inferior
in relation to that of others in bis group.

Kindergarten experience can be very valuable in helping
children who, because their response to their environment is
apparently limited, may be misdassified as retarded. Usually
such children have had little group experience; they are shy,

232 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

imeoire, and anxious. They have diiBculty adjusting to neNV
situations and to strange {>eople, W^out experience in Idnder-
garten, these children might witluiraw into themselves so that
their real abilities would remain hidden for a long time.

Visual Handicaps

It has been estimated that nearly 40 per cent of all school
children have some visual defect requiring correction if not spe-
cial educational provisions.** It is obviom that children who are
partially seeing are severely Iiandicapped in a situation which
depends on sight as much as most school programs do. Normal
children receive approximately 87 per cent of their sensory im-
pressions through their eyes,** If this avenue for impressions is
cut oS through total blindness or restricted through partial vision,
the dtlld is deprived of a source of stunulaUon necessary for
mental maturation and Ids capacity for social portidpatioo in play
and recreation is limited.

The problems of the visually handicapped child may not
loom so largo in the landergarten as they will later in his school
career, when greater demands will be made on his sight. Never-
theless, for the child who is visually handicapped, special pro-
visions should be made, even ia the kmdergarten. He needs good
lighting on his work, dull rather than glazed paper, 3 miniomm
of detail in pictures, books with large type, and soft nriting ma-
terials. He should be ^ven many opportunities to touch things
and to use his ears to compensate for his defective vision when-
ever possible.

Audilery Handicops

Although defective lieariog is frequently overlooked, it has
been estimated ** tliat “the number of severely handicapped

** Itonco Cnglub, CfiiU Ptydiohgif, New york. Holt, SS5*> P- >65.

“iWd., p. aaS-
*• Baker, op. cU., p. 9S.

7116 Exceptional QiiM 2$.*?

hard-of-hearing needing tl\e special type of class is probably
almost as great as the partially seeing, since the number of the
totally deaf is approximately equal to tlie bUnd."

Deafness brings with it a certain amount of insecurity, yet
on the whole deafened children seem to have fewer fears than
their normal age mates.** Their greatest problems are social
and educational. They lag behind other cliildren markedly in the
area of social adjustment because of their inability to communi-
cate. Many deafened adults hara developed serious personality
problems. Because they cannot hear what is being said, they
have come to believe tliat people are talking about them and
therefore are suspicious and distrustfuL Children may also de-
velop some emotional difficulties because of their inability to
understand otliers or e\'ea to make their oNvn wants or needs
known.

Children with hearing difficulties should be given every pos-
sible aid in understanding what other people are saying, indud*
ing lip>reading instruction. Children who are seriously handi*
capped aurally should liave a carefully fitted hearing aid, in
order to make as much use as possible of the hearing they do
have. In addition, partially and wholly deaf children need special
training in speech; because they are unable to hear many sounds
clearly, they may be unable to reproduce sounds accurately.
The average classroom teacher lacks the special training needed
to help the child to develop these skills, but she can refer chil-
dren who are aurally handicapped to the proper specialists.

Speech Handicaps

Not only children >vitb hearing defects but also many chil-
dren with normal hearing al^ty may have serious speech handi-
caps. Estimates of the number of speech-handicapped children
vary, depending on how "speedi defect" is defined by each in-
ir Strang, op. at., p. 377.

284 Teaching the Kiiulergaiten Child

vestigator, but some investigators state that as much as lo per
cent o£ the school population is so alHicted.*®

Stuttering, perhaps the most common of the speeclr prob-
lems, occurs in about i per cent of the school population It ^
more characteristic of the mentally retarded than of normal dnl-
dren and is four to £ve times as frequent among boys as among
girlsd* However, as we have pointed out in earlier chapters,
stuttering among kindergaitners. lilce many other apparent speed,
defects, may be a maturational characteristic. The child of tins
age may stutter because his vocabulary is inadequate to crpress
his thoughts: or lus stuttering may be the result of the tension
produced in attempting to adjust to the school envnomnenL
Stuttering at this age may be esseolialiy normal,

The treatment of persistent stuttering should be left to the
specialist, hut the teadier can help the stutterer by mamtannng
a calm and facUitating attitude when the child is trying to ^ea
and by encouraging him to take his time in spe g, e s
not force the child to speak to the group and she should use ^
the patience and understanding at her command to help the child
learn to accept his own stuttering calmly so that he
easUy overcome It, As English” says, "It is the disorder of smb
tering speech that she must let alone, not the stuttering ^

. . .Herrolc is more like that of the nursewho mates Aepab^t

cnmfottable than that of the physidan who prescribes

Many children with seeing or hearing difficulties dollop
emorion Jproblems related to their disability. But
with defective speedi may become even more bir
adults tend to be less understanding of his tanchcap ^

are of visual and auditory handicaps. Many ^ u. vPt as

coming a speech handicap is merely a matter o w
'•Roy D. WiUey, Guidance in Elemenuny Educatlorh New VoA. Harper,
1952, p. 661.

'•SUang, op. cit., p. 430-
•• Engld^, op. cit., p. 320 .

Tlie Exceptional C3u!J 285

gaiten. The cliild who is in poor general health is usually not 3
happy child, and to the degree that he is unliappy he is lacking
in adjustment. The child who lacks physical vigor is often absent
from school; he is isolated mudi of tlie time from other children,
and he receives an undue amount of attention from adults. Such
children tire easily and, although they appear to be quite normal,
they have more than their share of illnesses. Both Willey *• and
English ** estimate that two thirds of the children in school have
some health problems.

Children who are not adequately nourished do not have the
vitality of other children— and an appalling number of children
are not adequately nourished. If to the number of children imder'
nourished because of poverty we add those who, though not
poor, axe undernourished because they are improperly fed,
we see malnutiitian “in its proper light as a major national
problem.*”

It is important to the general welfare of children that the
school make every provision possible to safeguard their health
from their earliest years in sdiooL This should be done by pro*
vldlng both adequate health services and an intensive, well*
planned health-education program beginning in the kindergarten
and continuiag through high school and college. Concern for the
health of the school child is one of the cardinal principles of
education.

Problems for Discussion

1. Mrs. Farter’s son has a deformed ear which is kept bandaged so
that no one can see it. The boy is in your kindergarten. Although
he plays well and happily with the group, the bandage excites
curiosity on the part of the other children. How would you handle
this situation vrith the childieh? with die child’s mother?

s«WilIey, op. cit., p. 194.

«* English, op. at., p. 379.

IbuL, p. 366.

2SS Teaching the Kindergarten Child

3. What “significant items of bdwvior" might help the teacher iden-
tify a hard-of-hearing child? a mentally retarded child? a gifted
child?

3. Mary appears to be timid at school, but her mother says that she
is really a very “naughty’* child at home. What do you thinW
causes these differences in her behavior? Is it possible that there
are actually no differences in her behavior in the two situations?
Assuming that Mary acts at home about as she behaves at school,
how can you explain (he fact (hat her mother considers her
"naughty’?

4. What information from a home visit might be helpful (0 you in
discovering the cause of a child’s difficulties in adjustment?

5. Uow would you help a partially-seeing child during "show-and-
tell’’ time? How would you help such a child during story hour?

6. Obser\’e a kindergarten group and note irregularities in speech.
What is the reaction of the group to these children’s difficulties?
What is the role of the teacher in $uch situations?

Suggested Addltlenol Reading

Abraham, Willard, *Tbe Child Who Is Different.” Understanding (lie
ChiW, X95S, XXIV, i, 2-6.

Baibe, Walter B., "Are Gifted Children Being Adequately Provided
For?* Educallcmal Administration and Supervision, 1954, XL,
‘lOS-ia-

Beasley, Jane, Slou) to Talk. New York. Bureau of Publications, Teach-
ers College, Columbia University, tgsB.

Crippled Children in School. Bulletin No. g, YVashingtoo, D. C., U. S.
Office of Educatroo, Federal Security Ageaacy, >948.

Cowan, J. C., and Cou'an, May S., '* 11 >e Gifted Child; An Annotated
Bibliography.’’ California Jotimal of Educational liesearch, 1955,
VI, 72.94.

Hayes, E. Nelson, ed., Directory for Exceptional Children; Sclujols,
Services, Other Facililles. BoKoa. Porter Sargent, Publisher, 1954.

Hildreth, Gertrude, Educating Gifted Children. New York, Harper &
Brothers, 1952.

Ikeda, Hannah, "Adapting the Kutsay School Program for the Men-
tally Betard^ CJiild." Exceptional Children, 1955. XXT, 171-73.

Hie Exceptional Chile! ZS9

Laycock, Samuel It, "Commum^ Usdeistaoding ol tlie Exceptional
Child.** Exceptional C/uldrcn, &9S4> XXI, 47'49>

Levin, Edna, and Groht, Mildred, *7^urseiy School and the Deaf
Child." Volia Review. 1955, LVII. 5, 199-309.

Lcvimon, B. *T?e thinking the Selection of 'Intellectually Gifted’
Children." Psychological Report, 1936^ H. wy-SO.

Martens, Elise, CurriaJum Adfustmentt for the MeniaSy Retarded.
BuUetia No. 2, Washington. D. C., U. S. Office of Education,
Federal Security Agency, 1950.

Ke'^Iand, T. Ernest, "Essential Research Directions on the Gifted."

Exceptional Children, 1955, XXI, 392-96.

Rogers, Dorothy, iienlal Hygiene in Elementary Education. Boston,
Houghton hliffiin Co-, 1957.

Smith, Kl. F., and Burks, A. }., Teaching the Slots Learning Child.

New York, Harper & Brothera, 1954.

Some trohlems tn the Education of Handicapped Chihfren. Bulletin
No. 17, Washington, D. C., U. S. Office of Education, Federal
Security Agency, 1931.

Teachers of Children Who Are A/enral7y Retarded. Bulletin No. 9,
Washington, D. C., U. S. Office of Education, Federal Security
Agency, 1956.

Teachers of Children Who Are PartiaOy Seeing. Bulletin No. 4, Wash*
Iflgton, D. C., U. S. Office of Education, Federal Security Agency,
1956.

290 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

17 . School, Parents, and Community

Educationally we have been moving, during this cenlxuy, from
a book-centered to a life^eotered s<^ool-to a school that recog*
nizes what it can contribute to. and gain from, the community
of which it Is s part Today we realize that the public school
cannot function In isolation, for it is the cultural expression of
our democratic way of life. Unique as each child is, he possesses
certain needs in common with other children which can be met
only through a functional interchange beriveen the school and
its community.

The agencies and individuab Uut make up the community
can contribute to the work of the school by participating in edu-
cab'onal activities inside and outside the school, by recognizing
their obligation to teadi children about the larger world b^'ond
the classroom, and by welcoming children as visitors to observe
the work of the adult world. While the school has an obligation
to understand the community and to take part in commumty
aSairs, the community must also work to understand and im-
prove its chUdien’s school. In some communities groups of busi-
nessmen and of teachers visit each other at work so that the
businessmen in the community come to understand the schools
and the teachers learn aboitt the local iadustries. Such an inter-
change helps botli groups work more closely together in further*

Laycock, Samuel R., “Community Understanding of tie Exceptional
Child." Exceptional Children, 1954, XXI, 47 ’ 4 Q-

Levin, Edna, and Croht, Mildred, “Nursery School and the Deaf
Child.” Volta Review. 1955, LVII, $. 199-209.

Levinson, B. M., “Rethinking the Selection of 'Intellectually Gifted’
Children." Psychological Report, 1956, II, 127-30.

Martens, Elise, Curriculum Adjustments for the MenUdly Retarded,
Bulletin No. 2, Washington, D. C., U. 5. OiBce of Education,
Federal Security Agency, 1950.

Newland, T. Ernest, “Essential Research Directions on the Gifted."
Exceptional Children, 1953. XXI, 292-96.

Rogers, Dorothy, Hental Hygiene in Elementery Education, Boston,
Houghton Mifflin Co., 1957.

Smith, Kf. F., and Burks, A. J., Teaching the Slow Learning ChOd,
New York, Harper & Brothers, 1954.

Some Prohlenu in the Edttcotion oj Hondicopped Children. Bulletin
No. 17, Washington, D. C., U. S. Office of Education, Federal
Security Agency, 1951.

Teachers of Children Who Are Mentally Retarded. Bulletin No. 3,
Washington, D. C., U. S. Office of Education, Federal Security
Agency, 1956.

Teachers of Children Who Are Partially Seeing. Bulletin No. 4, Wash-
ington, D. C., U. S. Office of Educ^oo, Federal Security Agency,
1956.

290 Teaching the Xindergarten Child

17 . School, Parents, and Community

EducaoiuBy wc have beea .noving. derieg “
a beok-cen Jed .e a U£=.cen.e«d
nizes what it can contribute to, an g > .

of which it U a part. "e„p,erticn of

cannot funcUon u. pMd is, he postcHCS

our dmocrauc way oi Ufe. Uidqu can be met

certain needs in common with oth tj,- school and

only throng a functional interchange between the school an

Its community. , . .j ,.1, that make up the community

he dassrcom, and by °hccl has an nbligadon

the work ct the adult wn,li^VMeh=^^

to understand the community Jderstand and im-

aSairs “““r'lTlo »n.o communities poups of busi-

prove its children 5 school, in SO cn that the

nessmon and of teachers '',^ge„nmd the schools

businessn.on in the , jpau^Mes. So* an inter-

and the teachers learn about tne further-

change helps both poops wpk more closely together m further

291

ing their common goals: to better educate their children and to
make the community a better place in which to live. By paying
mote than Up service to the idea that a community is a vital
social force, tlie school can transform the community into a kutd
of school— a sdiool where democracy becomes a living, func-
tioning concept

The school can also contribute to the community. Often even
young cluldien can render small services to improve the general
welfare; for example, th^ can make special holiday decorations
for die wards in a diildrea’s hospital, share some of their toys
with less fortunate cliildren, or invite a local policeman to talk
about how they can help to make life safer for everyone. These
may be very small contributions from an adult standpoint, but
all these activities reinforce the bond between school and com-
munity and demonstrate to children that everyone can contribute
to community living.

The school enriches the life of the community by sharing
such school faculties as shops, game rooms, gymnasiums, Ubia-
ries, and so on. It is wasteful to bar the school door after the
close of the school day so that the sdiooVs vast possibilities are
realized by only one segment of the population for only a limited
number of hours per day and for only a portion of the week.
Education which is genuinely democratic helps people, old and
young, to live more edectively and happily as individuals and as
members of their social group.

The newer philosophy of education realizes that the school
is only one force in the education of the child. As Ryan * points
out:

The school needs to see itself, not in any sense as the exclusive
educational agency, especially where human personality is con-
cerned, but as one significant agency; an agency that has not yet
fully realized its opportunities and which cannot realize them

•W. Carson Ryan, Ifentol Heabh Through Education, New York, The
Commonwealth Fund, ig^S.

292 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

without close relationshijts svith all other forces in life that
bear upon growdi and devdopment of human beings, includ-
ing especially the parent and the home.

Except for a few rather specialized shills, the child learns os
much in. his home and in his commuoity as he does at school.
Instead of shutting out these powerful forces for education, the
modem school draws these sources of strength to itself. Schools
become meeting places for youth and adult groups; they co-oper-
ate with the Red Cross and other service organizations by pro-
viding space for tlieir activities or by enlisting the help of chil-
dren in the work of packing food parcels, addressing mail, making
special holiday cards for the food trays of hospitalized veterans,
and so on. They encourage children to partidpato in civic
projects.

Even the kindergartners can contribute to community af-
fairs, at their own maturity level. “Fours* and “fives* can help
to gather plants or seeds for a civic beautification project. They
may even assume the entire responsibility, ^vjth the help of their
teacher, for one small flower bed witliin easy access of the
school, or they might improve the lawn of the school by planting
grass on the bare spots. More mature kindergartners may interest
themselves in discovering safety hazards in tho neighborhood of
the school and reporting tlicm to the proper authorities. Cluldren
who become part of these larger cpnunuiuty enterprises gain
experience and insights which can enrich their whole school ex~
perience. They become more valuable contnbutors to tlie welfare
of the scliool as well as of tlic community.

If schools are to promote the development of the whole cliild
in relation to his total envirorunent, education must be a com-
munity-wide concern. The school together witli the community
becomes the functioning unit; neither can accomplish the task
without the otlier. In a school which holds to tliis philosophy,
children go out into the community to observe how people work
and play and how they coordinate their efforts to improve the
welfare of alL The walls of the classroom expand to take in the

Schoof, Foreirts. and Community 293

whole community. Even the youngest children in the school are
eager to explore the world about them.

Seeing the community \s'otldng as a whole, children leam
to appreciate and understand the efforts of the social group to
meet human needs. They see what a practical matter co-opera-
tion is. And this working together in common interests helps
adults and children understand each other better.

School-Parent Relationships

If diildren are to realize their hill potentialities, all agencies
concerned with their health, education, and welfare should work
together. Because the home is one of the most important of
these agencies, teachers must be concerned with parent-sdiool
relationsbips.

Not so very long ago, there was no need for home and school
to plan together, because they were one and the same. The cur-
riculum for the child was determined by the demands of life in
the family and the community. Children were taught, more or
less informally, by parents or older members of the family. In
this setting the child learned wb^ was necessary for survival
and good living in his cultural group; by this means he was
taught the mores of his group and the means of earning a living.
As the school took over more and more of the education of the
child, the patent was pushed farther and farther away, until he
had little to say in the educational plan for his diildren. It was
accepted that parents could flaim responsihility for children at
home, hut there was no place for parents in the schooL When it
was finally recognized that parrats should participate in the
work of the school, they were invited to “meetings.” On the
whole, teachers viewed these gatherings as occasions for dis-
seminating “pearls of wisdom” to parents; just as children of that
day were expected to sit passivefy and listen, the parents were
expected to listen and learn. And just as we today are aware
that, tialdien leam more effetAivdy when diey partidpate ac-

294 Teaching tie Kindergarten Child

tivcly in the learning process so we now reojgnize also that the
parents can profit more from the teacher’s knowledge of tlieir
children if they are encouraged to participate in the children’s
school education.

Today we realize tliat parents are perhaps the single greatest
asset of the schools. Without their assistance and support the
co mmun ity school could not exist and the objectives of educa*
tion could not be reached. The education of a child requires con-
tinual careful planning based on the pooled experience and in-
telligence of the school and the family, so that development can
proceed in desirable ways, in harmony with the demands of
society and with the potentiah'ties of the individual. Parents are
the best source of information about their children. Working as
partners of the school, they can help greatly to further the goals
of education.

Every child brings his home and family with him to school
He carries them with him to his knowledge and general back-
ground, to his beliefs about himself and others, to his ideas about
religion, and to his other attitudes. In order to provide the best
possible eovirooment for the growth of children, the school needs
to know the home. Healthy home-school relations grow only out
of the conscious efforts of both parents and teachers working
together. Teacliers should be welcxiined into the home and
parents into the school. Parents need to know what the school
is trying to accomplish in educating their children. The teacher
needs to know what the parents’ goals are for their children.

In some communities mothers take turns spending a day at
school helping the kindergarten teacher to oversized classes or
making it possible for the group to engage in activities which it
could not undertake with only one adult present. Often the
parent- teacher organization interests itself to the welfare of
children whose parents are unable to pay for the midday lunch
or to provide other needs. If children have lunch at school
mothers may come to assist the regular employees in making
the usually hectic lunch period run more smoothly. Sometimes

School Parents, and Community 29S

mothers contribute their time and materials by maldng aprons
or smocks to protect children’s clothing for painting or other
messy activities. In some schook “room motlicrs* arc chosen who
sponsor social events such as Christmas or Valentine parties,
assist nurses and physicians at inoculation clinics, or help with
excursions. The teacher should bear in mind, liowcver, that room
mothers ore not chore girls and should not be asked to do only
the bothersome things tliat teachers themselves disbkc doing.
They should experience with the tcodicr the joys of being with
children as well as some of the necessary routine tasks.

Many parents— fathers as well as motliers— have cultural con-
tribudoDS to make. A Mexican parent may come and sing folk
songs to the kindergartners, a Chinese parent may come during
“^te" season and tell about “Boy’s Day" in China, or a Negro
parent may come to share his rich heritage of spirituals with the
children. In these and many other ways, parents can see the work
of the school at Erst liand and can acdvely participate %vith
teachers in educating their children. Even if parents have nothing
to contribute directly to children, the teacher should welcome
their presence in her classroom, for occxisional visits will help to
moke the objectives of teachers and parents one.

To provide home and school environments conducive to
wholesome attitudes among young cdiildren, parents and teacliers
should have wholesome attitudes toward each other. They should
respect each other and appreciate the role each is playing in the
education of children. They should have common goals for the
kindergarten child and know how they together work toward
these goals. This means that both teachers and parents should
know something about how children grow and, further, that they
should be able to communicate well with each other. Teachers
and parents both want to help the child make the most of his
potentialities. When relations between these two educative agen-
cies are harmonious, they can accomplish much more through
co-operative efforts than either school or home could effect indi-
vidually.

296 Teaching the Sindergaiten Child

Group Meetings of i*arents and Teachers

The parent-teacher organization is probably the most com-
mon meeting ground for x>arents and teachers. Hoivever, in cer-
tain situations, large PTA-group meetings may not be so effec-
tive in solving common problems or building good relationslups
as smaller meetings. The PTA often is very efBcient in uncovering
problems, but it is sometimes ineffective in solving tbem-per-
baps, as Hymes * suggests, because it frequently cannot concen-
trate on a pven problem for the pertod of time necessary to
resolve it. Nevertheless, many PTA’s are dynamic organizations
which do much to improve the life of the school. Attendance at
meetings of this organization can help parents to understand the
function of the kindergarten in terms of the total school program-

Bccently there has been some tendency to supplement the
monthly meeting of parents and teachers with room meetings,
in which parents can find help from others concerned with chil-
dren of approximately the same age and experience. In these
smaller groups, there appears to be more freedom of expression
and community of interest than in the larger, more impersonal
group. This trend marks a step forward toward more personal
relationships between parents and school.

Whether the meeting of parents and teachers is large or
small, formal or informal, teachers should not conceive of it as
an opportunity for “parent education” in the sense that they tell
parents what to do or where they have made their mistakes.
Parent education, no less than die education of children, is most
effective when it is carried oo democratically, witli the learner as
well as the teacher contributing. Unless there is a flow of ideas
in both directions, the energy, creativity, and leadership ivliich
many paxcots ean display will not be utilized for the good of
their children.

Teachers should encourage parents to do most of the talking

* James H>-mes, Jr, Effective Home-School Relationsidps, New Vork,
Prenllce-Hall, X953, p. 87.

School Parents, and Community 297

ing from ejestrain, she may suggest that the parent make some
observations at home. Teacher and parent can comi>are their
findings at a subsequent conference and plan steps to remedy
the defect Perhaps the teacher has noticed that the child appears
to ignore mucli of what is said lo him. In this case she may wish
to ask parents to observe this aspect of the child’s behavior at
home or to see to it that they give sufficient attention to the child
when he is talkmg so that he docs not develop the habit of ignor*
ing because he is ignored. Needless to say, if the child appears
to be nonnal and well adjusted and if be is making satisfactory
progress, the teacher should not be chary of praise for the child
and his parent Farcntteachcr conferences should not be limited
to meetings to discuss '‘problem children.'

In addition to its many other values, the conference can be
an important source of education for the teacher. She may di5«
cover factors in the child's home life that aficct or account for
his behavior at school and so become better able to provide for
his needs. She may even discover faults in her own personality
or method of teaching that she had not suspected.

The conference should focxis on the child’s social, emo*
tional, intellectual, and physical needs at bis stage of develop*
ment and ways in which the borne and school can work together
in satisfying them. The kmdergarteD teacher will want to tell
the parent something of the program of activities for four- and
five-year-olds and explain why certain things are done with chil-
dren at this level while others are postponed until later in his
school career. This aspect of the conference is especially impor-
tant if the school has had no previous contact with parents. The
teacher may wish to indicate to the parent what lands of activities
she plans for the children b> accomplish certain objectives, and
she may make suggestions as to how parents might help at home
to strengthen the learning. She might, for example, explain the
various activities used to help children perceive likenesses and
differences and so get ready for reading then she might suggest
how parents can help by playing informal games with children

300 Teaching the Kindergaitm c:hi1d

to improve their observatfon. While she is perfomuDg such tasks
as peeling potatoes, the mother can ask the child which potato
is the largest, how the color of the pan differs from that of the
kitchen counter lop, how the number 6 on tiie clock differs from
the number 9, how 10 diffm from 11, or how the child’s shoes
are different from or similar to his mother’s. Making such sug-
gestions not only helps parents to imderstand and aid the work
of the school but may also point to ways of improving their
relationships with their children.

During the conference, the teacher should encourage the
parents to ask questions concerning the work of the scliool or
the growth of children. Teachers can often help parents find
solutions to some of their problems. A parent mi^t ask, for
example, how she can handle her kindergarten-age child who
is jealous of his younger brother or sister. Skillful questioning on
the part of the teacher may kelp the parent to get a fresh per*
specUvo on the problem. The teaclier might ask: How old is tlie
other child? Was the older diild prepared for tlie coming of the
baby? How much time do you ^ve the older child all by himself?
Is he expected to have the younger tag along after him all the
time? Is it possible that the older child does not get enough
attention?

In talking with parents, the teacher needs to empliasize the
child's abilities before launching 00 a discussion of his disabilities.
Parent-teacher conferences are not a time for the teacher to tell
the parents all the things she dislikes about their cliild. Discussion
of the cliild’s weak points needs to be "sandwiched" between
compliments or parents will hesitate to return for further con-
ferences. Parents like to talk about their children, and often, %vith
a few suggestions on the part of the teacher, they will reveal
some of the child's weak points and how they feel about tliem.
Again, it is better for parents to initiate Uie discussion than for
teachers to do so.

At the end of the conference, the teacher should make a
record of any decisions that ha%-e keen reached which can be

School, Parents, and Community 301

tjsed as a for instituting proper procedures and for future
conferences. Some school systems use a form which the teacher
fillt out during the conference^ indicating the date of the meeting
the name and age of the child, any significant items concerning
his behavior, and the rcsvdts of the meeting with parents.

Home Visits

Teachers who wish to understand the behavior of children
will find that they are ev entually led to study the home. Although
not all behavioral deviations can be attributed to broken homes
or 'bad' homes, the answers to many problems lie in home
factors. The sib pattern of a child— whether he has older or
jnungcr brothers or sisteis-inay mean that the child has respon*
sibUities bejoad his years or, at the other extreme, is ovcipro-
tected. The only child may develop problems related to his isoU'
don. Ihe socioeconomic status of tho home may i&fiuence child
behavior, even at the Idndergaiten leveL The child of an invalid
mother probably will be different in many respects from the child
of a vigorous, athletic mother. The teacher will understand all
these factors more clearly if she visits the home.

hiost parents cooperate eagerly with an)one who is seeking
the well-being of their children. The teacher should show con-
sideiatioo of the busy mother by airangmg for her visit in
advance. Young children espdally delight in the teacher's coming
and they be very helpful in paving the way even with a
reluctant parent. The teacher should adopt the same easy and
unpretentious manner in visiting the home of a child as in calling
on her friends or on a new neighbor. A visit to the home
no more demands on social ^kill than these familiar activities.

Reporting to Parents

The problem of reporting to parents of Idndergaitners about
die progress of their children has alwaj-s been a difficult one.

S02 Teaching the Kindergarten nhiM

Because young children change so rapidly in many developmental
aspects, reports rapidly become outdated. In some areas of devcl*
opment the child may remain on a plateau for some time, shovving
no measurable change, only to spurt ahead suddenly. Children
do not grow in weekly or monthly increments that lend tliem-
selves to a rigid system of reporting; indicating a child’s progress
on a report card may be veiy difficult at the kindergarten level

When parents work closely with teachers to become actual
participants in the school program, they depend less and less on
written reports about their children. There is a trend towanl
issuing formal reports less often and informal reports more fre-
quently than formerly. Parent-teacher conferences are taking the
place of forma! reports in many areas. After parents become
accustomed to the newer methods of finding out about children,
they no longer feci a need for a monthly report card.

No One system of reporting a child’s progress at school solves
all the problems involved, but some methods appear to bo better
tlian others, particularly for the young child. Casual, friendly
notes from the teacher to the parents can explain what the child
is doiog and how much progress ho is making Work sent
home with the child, with comments by the teaclicr concerning
his accomplishments, gives the parent assurance that the child is
^wing at a satisfactory rate for him, even though the child next
door may be growing more rapidly.

Changing the meUiod of reporting to parents usually neces-
sitates a change in the kind of records the school keeps on growth
in children. Records and reports reflect Uie philosophy of a school;
what Is put into records and tlte use that is mado of the informa-
tion indicates what tlio school deems important. Unfortunately,
however, the practice of recording and reporting often lags be-
hind theory. Many schools have developed logical and useful
forms of recording but luvo not yet learned to use the records
wisely, for the benefit of tlio child, and with Increasing skill in
separating objective data from subjective data.

Records should be regarded as a means to on end rather than

Sdwol, Parent); and Caaanutaty SCO

as an end in themselves. Their purpose is to ensure that the school
is providing Uie best possible educational environment for the
individual child, in the light of his particubr developmental level
and his unique problems, and Uut the child is developing to his
full capacity. Thus they can help teachers do a better job of
teaching and can create better understanding among the school,
the home, and the community with the result that education for
children is improved.

Records must be understandable. They should be sufficiently
detailed to be meaningful, but not so lengthy that they become
difficult to assess. Ample time should be provided for keeping
the records, but not so much as to detract from the important
job of teaching. All records, whatever their form, should be char-
acterized by simplicity and should be so organized that repetitioa
is kept to a minimum. Records ate useful only in so far as the
data recorded are accurate and free of bias.

Teachers should have a part In developing record s)’stems
and designing the forms to be used. Since they are the ones w’ho
will make most use of records in any school, they should partici-
pate in deciding what information should be part of proposed
records.

The cumulative record, which is an account of the child’s
history in school, is one of the most useful forms of recording
developmental progress. There is a trend away from the single-
sheet record to the folder type, which permits inclusion of samples
of the child’s work, test results, anecdotal records of the child's
behavior and attitudes, and other important data. This represents
another forward step toward concern with the whole child rather
than merely with his achievement in subject matter or his attend-
ance record. The cumulative record is a s^mthesis of all data
concerning the child; it fonus a core of significant infonnation
to which each teacher contributes. Data must, of course, be accu-
rate and entries must be made regularly.

If cumulative records are to he jeaRy usehrl, teachers at all

304 Teaching the kindergarten Child

levels must understand the kinds of infonnation to be recorded,
the znanuer of recording it; and the system by which they pass
the records on to the next teacher. There should also be reci-
procity between schoob, so that essential infonnation can be sent
to any other school to which a child transfers.

In many kindergartens, teadrers use anecdotal records in
order to round out the general picture of the child presented
by more formal means. Anecdotal records are usually concemed
with some aspect of the child’s behavior or with incidents in the
child’s life which the teacher believes to be significant for under-
standing him and planning more adequately for him. Such anec-
dotal records are of little value unless they are objective. 'The
teacher should make every effort to report what actually took
place, recording conversadons and incidents as accurately as
possible and without intruding her persona] opinion or evalua-
tion. *1 think" and 'I believe" should be reserved for places other
than anecdotal records.

Tho anecdotal method of making periodic reports concerning
children is essentially cumulative. Over a period of time, the
data are interpreted in relation to other data. If the records are
properly prepared, they can become a valuable supplement to
other sources of information describing the child’s progress
through school

In studying the cumulative records, data should be evaluated
iu terms of the capacity and previous growth of the individual
child and, within limits, in terms of the growth of his age mates.
Norms should never he ri^dly applied to children; comparisou
^vith the child's own previous record is tlic best single index of
his progress. However, norms can be useful as guideposts in the
measurement and evaluation of growth in children.

Schools have special responsibihties in recording information
about children who deviate from their peers physically, emo-
tionally, or mentally. Only the school witli a functional system
of record keeping which constantly reveals tlie special abilities
and disabilities of these children can meet their imique needs.

School Parents, and Canununity 305

as an end in themselves. Thei purpose is to ensure that the school
is providing the best possible educational environment for the
individual child, in the light of his particular developmental level
and his unique problems, and that the child is developing to his
full capacity. Thus they can help teachers do a better job of
teaching and can create better understanding among the school,
the home, and the community with the result that education for
children is injproved.

Records must he understandable. They should be sufficiently
detailed to be meaningful, but not so lengthy that they become
difficult to assess. Ample time should be provided for keeping
the records, but not so much as to detract from the important
job of teaching. All records, whatever their form, should be ebar-
acteri2ed by simplicity and should be so organized that repetition
is kept to a minimum. Records are useful only iit so far as the
data recorded are accurate and free of bias.

Teachers should have a part in developing record systems
and designing the fonns to be used. Since they are the ones who
will make most use of records in any school, they should partici-
pate in deciding what information should be part of proposed
records.

The cumulative record, which is an account of the child’s
history in school, is one of the most useful forms of recording
developmental progress. There is a trend away &om the single-
sheet record to the folder type, which permits inclusion of samples
of the child's work, test results, anecdotal records of the child’s
behavior and attitudes, and other important data. This represents
another forward step toward concero with the whole child rather
than merely with his achievement in subject matter or his attend-
ance record. 'The cumulative record is a synthesis of all data
concerning the child; it forms a core of significant information
to which each teacher contributes. Data must, of course, be accu-
rate and entries must be made regularly.

If cumulative records are to be really useful, teachers at all

S04 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

levels must understand the lauds of information to be recorded,
the manner of recording it, and the system by virhich they pass
the records on to the next tcadier. There should also be reci*
procity between schools, so that essential information can be sent
to any other school to which a diiJd transfers.

In many kindergartens, teaclieis use anecdotal records in
order to round out the general picture of the child presented
by more formal means. Anecdotal records are usually concerned
with some aspect of the child's behavior or with incidents in the
child's life which the teacher believes to be significant for under-
standing him and planning more adequately for him. Sucb anec-
dotal records are of little value unless th^ are objective. The
teacher should make every effort to report what actually took
piac^ recording conversaUons and inddenis as accurately as
possible and \vitbout intruding her personal opinion or evalua-
tion. “I think" and "I believe" should be reserved for places other
than anecdotal records.

The anecdotal method of making periodic reports concerning
children is essentially cumulative. Over a period of time, the
data are interpreted in relation to other datx If the records aro
properly prepared, they cm become a valuable supplement to
other sources of information describing the child's progress
through sdiooL

In studying the cumulative records, data should be evaluated
in terms of the capadty and previous growth of the individual
child and, ivithio limits, in tenns of the growth of bis age mates.
Norms should never be rigidly applied to children; comparison
with the child’s own previous record is the best single index of
his progress. However, nonns can be useful as guideposCs in the
measurement and evaluation of growth in children.

Schools liave special rcsponsibihtics in recording information
about children who deviate from their peers physically, emo-
tionally, or mentally. Only the school witii a functional system
of record keeping wliich constantly reveals tlie special abilities
and disabibtics of these children can meet their unique needs.

School. l^renU, and Community SOS

The best evidence that these needs are being met is a synthesis
of data kept over a period of time which describes the child’s
growth and progress in terms of his own previous record.

Problems for Discussion

1. ^Vhat is the meaning of the statement, “The school is the cultural
expression of our democratic way of life*?
i. List as many sources of education for young children as you can
other than the school. 'Ihese need not be organized agencies. Try
to estimate how much time the child spends daily with each of
these sources as compared with the three or four hours be spends
in Idndergarten.

3. Yoirr principal has asked you to take the responsibility of plant-
ing some flowers in front of the sdtooL How would you go about
planning this with children? What "subject areas'* would be in-
volved in such a venture?

4. What "individual differences'* might you expect to And in a group
of parents? Can you expect the range of these differences, on the
uhole, to be greater or less than in a group of kindergarten chil-
dren? ^Vhy?

5. List some of the questions you would wish to bring up in a con-
ference with a parent Beveise roles and indicate Some questions
that you as a parent would want to ask of the teacher.

6. How would you go about planning for a visit to the following
kinds of home:

a. the home of the most esteemed politidan in the dty.

b. a home where no English is spoken,

c. the home of parents you know to be hostile to die schooL

d. the borne of a "normal" child bvm an "average" family.

7. Suppose that you are ebainnan of a committee of teachers ap-
pointed by your school administrator to study report forms and
recommend changes. How would you go about planning this task?
Whose help would you enlist? Outline your plans.

8. In what sense do records and reports reflect the philosophy of a
sdiool?

9. Observe a group of kindeigaiten rhildrpn Select one child and
observe his behavior for a dioit time, then write an anecdotal

306 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

record of what took place. What did you Bnd most difficult in this
kind of record keeping?

Suggested Additional Reading

Baldwin, A. L., “The Effect of Home Environment on Nursery Sdiool
Behavior." Child Deoe^opment, 1949, XX, 49-62.

Berger, Arthur, “Commuiucations as a Factor in Home-School Rela-
tionships." Nerootis Child, igS 4 , X, 403-0S.

The Community School. Fifty-second YearbooK Part II, Chicago,
National Society for tlie Study of Education, University of Chicago
Press, 1933.

Crossman, Joan, Ways and Means of flenching Parents. Ne\v York,
Play Schools Association.

OEvelyn, Katherine £., Individual Parent-Teacher Conferences. New
York, Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia Univer-
sity. 194 S-

Eckert, Ralph G., and Smitter, Faith W., Home and Sc})ool Work
Together for Young Children. Bulletin, Sacramento, Calif., Cali-
fornia State Department of Education, March 1949, XVIII, 1.

Fletcher, Margaret et al, A Neto Child Comes to Nursery School.
Bulletin, Toronto, Institute of Child Studies, XVII, 1, 3-8.

For Parents Particularly: Their Children at Home and at School. Re-
print Service Bulletin, Washington, D. C., Assodatioa for Child-
hood Educatiao Internationa], >949.

Langdon, Grace, and Stout, Irving W., Teacher-Parent Interviews.
New York, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1954-

McNassor. Donald, "Barriers and Gateways in School-Community
Relationships." foumal of Educational Sociology, 2934, XXVUI,
1-20.

School. Parents, and Conununily 207

The Concept of Readiness

A concept basic to good teacbing is tint all children pass
through certain developmental stages and in a certain sequence.
Each stage depends on the one svhich has preceded it, and,
although children's rates of gtmvth vary greatly, all cluldren pass
through the same orderly process.

Every day of his life, the child becomes ready for some nesv
erperience: at every stage in the grosvth cycle, he is better
prepared eapeiientially and intellectually for certain learnings
than he was previously. Not aU children are ready at the same
tune for the same thing, hut every child, as a learning organism
erplormg his environment and integrating hi, espen'ences in his
osm umque way, is learning something nesv eveiy day. With
Uus contmuoirt growth and reotganiaalion of esperience comes
ma^g a^ty to profit from learning which held HtUe mean-
mg before. Children do with great dlfflcully at four years of age
many thmgs which they are able to accomplish with ease and
ro^d»ce at five when they have greater maturity and esperi-
ence. Readmess Is the term rrsed to espress this concept. R^di-
ness and maturity are not synonymous, hut it is diacnlt to distin-
giiisn one irom the other.

mg the duld m determme when he should he introduced to a
noiv learnmg. He teacher .held „ot rush the child iuto leam-
Md Nor should she delay the learning if the

ddd nr ready for ,t long before his age mates. Forcing lldron
^ °fF rt results in much waste

of effort and tae for teachers r„dchfldrcnalilre.Matr,rityfactcrs,

as many urvestrgaters ■ have demonstrated, are of primal inpo^
tance is all leammg. r t-

-Readiness- means different things to different people, hut

* See A. Cesell and H. Thompson, *XeatniniT ..i. ■ r e

An Experimental Study by the Method* of “lilenbcal Twins:

PsT/chalcsu iionographi. xgag, XXIV x..2sfi. Control," Genetic

it is generally agreed that it is based on a combination o£ factors
concerned with the physical, mental, social, and emotional matu-
rity of the child as well as with his general experiential back-
ground The child’s development in each of these areas is, to a
large extent, a matter of time; adiilts must wait for maturation
to take place. Nevertheless the kindergarten can do much to
stimulate this growth.

Physical Factors In Readiness

Among the physical factors to be considered in relation to
readiness are vision and hearing. The child with uncorrected
visual difficulties or faulty hearing will he less ready for the work
of first grade than the cluld who does not Lave these handicaps.
Speech defects and generally low vitality also have an adverse
eSect on readiness. Qecause good physical healtli is so important
to the child’s success in formal s^iool work, kindergarten teachers
should be especially alert in observing children so that measures
can be taken early to remedy any physical defects.

The ability to coordinate eye and band is a skill important
to reading. This skill, of course is largely dependent on normal
physical development, but it can be encouraged and furthered
through kindergarten activities. Larger muscles are developed
through gross motor activity, such as building with large blocks,
and rhythmical activities, such as bopping, skipping, and dancing.
Oculomotor control is improved through hammeriog, bouncing
balls, watering plants, cuttiag and coloring, drawing, building,
and buttoning clothes.

The exercises listed below can also help to develop the
child’s motor abilities.

i. Have children trace a form— circle, square, etc.— trying to
keep on the line.

a. Have children cut out forms, trying to cut on the line.

On to First Grade 311

IS

On to First Grade

Tlie kindergarten exists for the primary purpose of enabling four-
and five*year*oIds to live a rich and satisfying life at their stage
of maturity. It supplements the home and community, offering
experiences which these agencies cannot so easily provide. But
it also has the responsibility of ensuring that the child grows
and de>-elops at the maximum possible rate in every area. It
attempts to provide a challen^g environment which will stimu*
late the child's intellectual, social, emotional, and physical prog-
ress and in which, through a variety of experiences, he will add
daily to his skills and learnings.

The step from kindergarten to first grade is a tremeodoxis
one, perhaps the greatest in the educational ladder. Because of
“the formality, the necessity of be^nning to read, to carry out
orders, to walk in a line," entrance into first grade constitutes
“the first real threat in the actual structure of the child’s personal-
social development.” *

Much can be done to help the child bridge thi< difficult gap
in his school career. Kinder^rtea and first-grade teachers can so
arrange activities and experiences that the child makes the transi-
tion from the freedom of the kindergarten to the more formal

^ Cecil Millard, Child CrouTth and Dec^pment in the Elementary School
Years, Boston, Heath, i95i.

SOS

learning situation of first gra^ easily and naturally. The first-
grade teacher, for example, ni^t invite Uie kindergartners,
perhaps in small groups, to visit her classroom so that they get
a taste of the experiences to come. Joint play sessions or holiday
observances might be planned for the two groups of children—
supervised, of course, by both teachers.

The kindergarten teacher is in a position to make the greatest
contribution to the cliild's adi'ustment to first grade. By planning
a program to develop good work habits in children, for example,
she can improve the likelihood of their success In first grade.
The child in the well-planned kiodergaiten leams to respect the
rights of others by sharing and taloDg turns with material and
ctjuipmenL He leams to work independently for increasing
amounts of time, using materials effectively and economically.
He leams to follotv, within the limits of his maturity, a reasonable
schedule. He leams to finish his work satisfactorily for his level
of devclopmeot. The kindergarten provides an envzronmfint is
which the child can develop all his abilities and can learn to
think and use his native tongue. Id the well-planned kindergarten
the child has opportuoides to accumulate a rich store of experi-
ences and understandings, so that he brings an adeijuate back-
ground to tbe Icamijigs that will be expected of him as a first-
grader.

In this chapter, we have suggested several ways in which
the kindergarten teacher can prepare children for more specific
learnings in the first grade, by means of games and exercises
designed to develop children’s motor abilities and perceptual
acuity. It should be pointed out that many teachers do not feel
that such fonnal procedures are necessary or desirable in the
kindergarten. Nor does the present author suggest that they nec-
essarily be used. £ach individual teacher will have to decide
this issue for herself, on the basis of her knowledge of the chil-
dren is her class, their readiness for learnings in each area, her
own philosophy of teaching and the administrative policies of
the school.

On to First Grade S09

The Concept of Readiness

A concept basic to good teaching is that all children pass
throu^ certain developmental stages and in a certain sequence.
Each stage depends on the one which has preceded it, and,
although children’s rates of growth vary greatly, all children pass
through the same orderly process.

Every day of his life, the child becomes ready for some new
experience; at every stage in the growth cycle, he is better
prepared expeiientially and intellectually for certain learnings
than be was previously. Not all (d^dren axe ready at the same
time for the same thing, but every cduld, as a learning organism
exploring his environment and integrating his experiences in bis
own unique way, is leanung something new every day. With
this continuous growth and reorganization of experience comes
increasing ability to profit from leaning which held little mean-
ing before. Children do with great difficulty at four years of age
many things which they are able to accomplish with ease and
confidence at five, when they have greater maturity and experi-
ence. 'Readiness* is the term used to express this concept Readi-
ness and maturity are not synonymous, but it is difficult to distin-
guish one from the other.

From the standpoint of the teacher, readiness implies allow-
ing the child to detenmne when be should be introduced to a
new learning. The teacher should not rush the child into learn-
ing to read or write. Nor should she delay the learning if the
child is ready for it long before his age mates. Forcing children
into tasks foe which they ate not ready results in much waste
of effort and time for teachers and children alike. Maturity factors,
as many investigators ’ have demonstrated, are of primary impor-
tance in all learning.

~Readiness' means different things to different people, but

> See A. Ce$eO and H. Thooipsoi], “Learaiag ind Growth in Identunl Twins:
An Szpemnental Study hy die aietbod oi Co-Twin Contiti),* Ceneiic
Ptychologsf iloncgraphs, 1929, XXIV, 1-236.

310 Teachins the Kiodeigaxten Child

it is generally agreed that it is based on a combination of factors
cooceroed with the physical, mental, sodal, and emotional matu-
rity of the child as well as with his general e^cricntial back-
ground. The child's development in each of these areas is, to a
large extent, a matter of adults must %vait for maturation
to take place. Nevertheless, the kindergarten can do much to
stimulate this growth.

Physical Factors in Reodlness

Among the physical factors to be considered in relation to
readiness are vision and bcariog. The child ^vith uncorrcctcd
visual difficulties or faulty hearing will be less ready for the work
of fint grade than the child who docs not have these handicaps.
Speech defects and generally low sitality also have an adverse
effect on readiness. Secausc good physical health is so important
to the child's success in formal school work, kindergarten teachers
shotUd be especially alert in ob$er>-iag duldren so that measures
con bo taken early to remedy any physical defects.

The abiL'ty to coordinate eyo and liaud is a skill important
to reading. This skill, of course, is largely dependent on normal
physical development, but it can bo encouraged and furtlicred
through kindergarten activities. Larger muscles are developed
through gross motor activity, sudi as building with large blocks,
and rhythmical activities, such as bopping, skipping, and dancing.
Oculomotor control is improved through hammering, bouncing
bolls, Nvatcring plants, cutting and ooloriog, drawing, building,
and buttoning clothes.

The exercises listed below can also help to develop tho
child's motor abilities.

j. Have children trace a form-sarclci square, ctc.~trying to
keep on the line.

a. Have cliildrcrt cut out forms, trying to cut on Uie line.

On to Fint Crado 311

3- Have children fit together such objects as nested cubes,
pegboards, and simple jig*saw pu^es.

4. Write each child’s name on a piece of paper and have him
trace it with a pencil or crayon. Then have him try to
copy the name without tracing.

In these activities the child should be permitted to use his
preferred hand. If he is ambidextrous, the teacher can help him
to male a choice and develop a preference after determining by
experiment the hand which is used most frequently and has the
better control.

The kindergarten gives the child many opportunities to learn
auditory discriminatioa through games, poetry, and jingles. (See
suggestions for games in Chapter 9.) While the primary purpose
of reading poetry to the young child is enjoyment, poetry cau
also help children to recognize similarities and differences in
sounds. Music can be used in like manner; the child mattes
tones, he tells whether the tones go up or do%vn, or the teacher
may suggest that the children begin singing after she has sung
a certain number of phrases. This helps to develop the ability to
attend as well as to hear sounds.

Such games as the following can also help to develop audi-
tory discrimination:

1 . Clapping— Have children fonn a group and dap out a
pattern, such as two claps, one dap, three daps. Choose
individual children to repeat the pattern.

2 . Clapping Out a Story— Have the children form a group
and decide on the story and its method of expression. For
example, the story might be, “I like school," to be inter-
preted as three daps evenly spaced. First they say the
“story” accompanying it with daps, and later omit the
words while recalling the clapping. The stories and dap-
ping patterns can be varied in difficulty depending on the
group.

312 Teaching the Kindergarteo Child

3. CcwniJng the Sound«-Have children form a group. Strike
rhythm sticks on the pianOt tap the Boor, or clap bands.
Then choose individual children to tell how many dif-
ferent sounds were made:

Flay with puzzles, small blocks, and heads helps the child
to learn to discriminate visually. Calling the child's attention to
things which are “bigger,” “smaller,” “longer,” “shorter,” or
"\vider” help him to understand these words and to make finer
visual discriminations. Children can develop the ability to see
likenesses and differences hy comparing objects in their environ-
ment or in pictures. As they mature, still finer discriminations
are possible. The following exercises can also help to develop
children’s \1sual abilities.

1. Place several small familiar object oa a table and cover
them with a clotlt or piece of paper. Remove the cover,
exposing the objects for a few seconds. Replace the cover
and ask the children to name as many objects as they can
recall. Cradually increase the number of objects exposed.

a. Place several objects on the table and have children look
at them. Then have children dose their eyes while one
object is removed. Rearrange the remaining objects, then
ask the children which object is gone.

3. Expose a simple pattern for a feiv seconds. Remove it and
have children draw it from memoiy.

4. Expose a picture containing a number of items. Remove
it and have children tell as many things as they remember
seeing.

5. Describe some object and have children guess what it is.
“I am thinking of something little and wliite with long
ears and a short tail and pink eyes,” for example. Encour-
age children to try to visualize the object wfiile it is being
described. Describe the clothes and appearance of some
diild until tlie children can guess who is being described.

On to First Grade 313

Some enjoyable games played in the kindergarten can also
help to develop children’s perceptual abilities and mental alert-
ness. Many of these are variations of the “exercises” described
above.

L Lost CAtid— One child is diosen to be policeman. He
stands near the teacher with his back to the group and
his eyes covered. Children and teacher choose a “lost”
child. The teacher or a mature child describes the child
to the policeman who then “£nds” biTO in the group. The
“found" child then becomes the policeman.

2. Hissing CAiZd— Children form a group. The child who is
“it” first sur\-eys the group and then closes his eyes. A
diild is chosen to leave the room. After he has lefC “it*
opens his ej es and tries to guess who has gone. If he
succeeds, that child becomes *iL” If “it* fails to name tbe
niissfng child, he closes bis eyes while the child returns,
then attempts to guess who has returned. If he fails at
this, he is “it” again.

3. A Trip to the Store— One dtild begins by sa>'ing he went
to the store (any kind of store) to buy something such
as cake. The next child repeats the sentence and adds
another item. “I went to the store and bought cake and
bread.” The next child repeats what has already been said
and adds another item. ChOdren vary in their ability to
recall, but many may be able to repeat six or eight items
from memory.

4. Find the Hissing Color— Crayon, paints, or paper of \'ari-
ous colors are placed in a row. Children study Oiem. One
child covers his ej'es while one color is removed Tbe child
uncovers his eyes and tells the missing color. Difficulty
may be increased by remo>'mg more than one color if tbe
children Imow their colors and are rather mature.

5. Find the Hissing Oh/eef— The children form a group, one
child covering his eyes while another hides a small object

314 Teaching die Kindergarten

somewhere in the room. The child uncovers his eyes and
starts to look for die hidden object. The group gives him
hints by loud clapping when he comes near the object
and soft dapping when he is further away,

6 . Imitalion—The children form a group. One child is chasea
to go about the room and do something; for example, he
may take a book from the library comer and put it on the
piano. Individual children may be chosen to 'imitate'* the
first child or to tell what he did.

That perceptual abilities can be increased \vith specific train-
ing has been demonstrated by at least one group of experi-
menters. Besearchers at the National College of Education in
Evanston, Illinois, set up a situation in which a group of five-
year-old chtidrea was given specific training to develop per-
ceptual abilities. *rbis training, it should be noted, was given
in a Idndergarten environment already rich with many other
informal learning opportunldes. Kodachrome slides were pre-
sented for 20 fifteen-minute periods in the space of four months.
At first, simple designs were flashed at ^Iod second by means
of a tachistoscope and silver screen. Children were given an
opportunity to reproduce the designs on a blackboard. Later,
photographs of animals, boats, auplanes, etc. were used and
children were asked to describe the pictures. Four or five paint-
ing were photographed to make a series which told a story.
These were flashed in sequence, allowing one half second for
each exposure. After the entire series bad been shown, children
were asked to retell the story, putting consecutive incidents as
they appeared in the series By the end of the experimental period
children were being shown pen and ink designs and line drawings
and asked to identify the design they thought they saw by circling
it on a duplicated sheet of paper. (This was the first formal
experience with a crayon and paper task that the children had
had in school. )

On the basis of this and odver rapid-recognition programs

Os to First Grade SIS

for young children, the experimenters concluded that perceptual
training “promotes rapt aUentioa so essential to successful learn-
ing of any subject matter or shills’* and that it increases the child’s
interest in school and in learning because it improves his chances
of success*

Despite the apparent success of these programs, many people
object to such highly structured procedures in the landergarten.
IlsG Forest, an opponent of formalized instruction as preparation
for reading, warns, “It is only too easy for the unimaginative
adult to exploit the five-year-old's eagerness to learn; it takes
far less effort to conduct formal conversations with building
readiness-for-reading in min d and to plan other teacher-directed
activities than it does to provide a richer play environment, with
a greater variety than that provided for the fours, and a greater
incentive to try and explore and to discover to the limit of five-
year-old ahility.”*

Mental Factors in Readiness

Although the mental age necessary for success in first-grade
activities may vary with the skill of the teacher, the materials
available, the size of the class, and other factors, a mental age
of six years, six months, is generally accepted as necessary for
success in beginning reading.' The average four- or five-year-old,
of course, is as far from this in menial age as he is in chronological
age. But some childreu entering first grade ^viU have a mental
age considerably above this established minimum— and some, of
course, will fall far below it Whether kindergarten attendance

* Louise Daxls, Vivienne Hg, &fartha Springer, and Doreen Ilanch, Per-
ceptwit Training of Young CMdrcn, Bulled Na 5G, A Kfonograpb on
Language Arts, Evanston, UL, Natuxial College o! Educabon, Bow, Fetei-
*oo> 1&49-

* Use Forest, Earlu Years at School, New York, McGraw-Hill, 1949, p. 59.

* See, among others, Mabel hSoi^ctt and Carleton Waslibum, "When

Should Children Begin to Bead?" Elemenlaiy School Journal, March 1931,
XXXI, aisd Gertrude llildicth. Rcodiness for School Beginners,

Yonlcrs, N. Y., World Book, 1950, p. ass-

316 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

can raise the intelligence level of children has not been estab-
lished (see pp. 30-32). We do have evidence to show that in a
starved enviroaraent the intelligence of children seems to drop.*
. This, of coune, does not mean necessarily that in a rich environ-
ment intelligence vrill be raised, but it is only reasonable to
suppose that an environment so designed that children develop
to their maximum capacity will help to get them ready for more
formal school activities.

Social Factors In Reodiness

The kindergarten plays a significant role in helping children
adjust sodally to the school situation— a significant aspect of readi-
ness for learning. Dergamini and Swanson,’ among many other
investigaton, found that children who had had kindergarten
experience were more successful in first grade than those who
lacked this advantage. They conduded that the greater success
of the kindergarten-trained group was due in large part to their
ability to get along 'vith others and to respect their rights.

Emotional Factors In Readiness

- The chOd who is emotionally immature is not ready for the
work of the first grade. The kindergarten teacher can help chil-
dren develop a feeling of greater security by teaching them
certain skills which will help them find their place in the group.
Many children will need a great deal of help in such rudimentary
skills as learning to listen while others speak, taking turns, and
sharing with other children. In every kindergarten some children
will attempt to solve their problems by temper tantrums or
physical violence. Such children need to leam more mature be-

• Waiaid Valentine, Eiperimental FotmdotUm* of General Psyclicloeu. rev.
ed. New York, Faitar, 1941, p. 13a.

* Y. Bergaulni and VV. Swansew, “Does IQDtkrEUten Make a Difference?^
School Executive, December 1954, LXXIV, S4'SS-

On to First Crade 317

bavior before they can succeed in school Timid and fearful
children need help in being able to participate with their peers.
At least one study gives evidence that teaching children some
special slnlls helps them to adjust more adequately to the group.*

A gain in skills can change the child's attitude toward him-
self. an essential preliminary to behavior change. Children should
leave the kindergarten feeling that fir^ grade is a new and chal-
lenging experience to be anticipated with pleasure rather than a
frightening one that is to be avoided.

Fint-grade teachen can help by introducing kindergartners
to the first-grade environment At the University of Florida Lab-
oratory School, the kindergaiten children are invited to visit the
first grade toward the end of the year and ask questions concern-
ing the work there. This experience appears to make chil dren
more eager to go to fint grade.*

The Experiential Background

Experiential background is another factor afecting readi-
ness for first-grade activities. Some children come into the kinder-
garten having had few experiences beyond their osvn backyard.
Others come into the kindergarten svith extensive backgrounds
of travel and information. Some children have bad little or no
experience with books; some come horn homes where much
reading is done. 'These diSerences in backgrounds svill affect not
only the child’s store of information and experiences but his atti-
tudes toward books and education as well

The good kindergarten teacher tries to provide some com-
mon core of experience for cdiildren so that they are better able
to profit from later school work. Increased experience %vitb all

■ U. M. Jack. 'An Experimental Study of Behavior ia Preschool Children,'
in M. Jack et aL, Behactor of the Fteachool Chtkf, Studie* in Child
Welfare, Iowa Qty, University of Iowa I^ess, 1934, K, 9, 7-65.

* Buth B. Feels, 'Heknng the Bndergaitea Get Ready for First Ciade,'
Elementary English, Apnl X935. XXXI^ sax-as.

318 Teaduug the Kindergarten Child

zammer of Uiings in Uieir eavinmnant will supplement the
meager supply of infonnatioo wliicb many childroi bring to
school. With added experiences come new wTirds to describe
them.

In addition to first-liand experiences, the teacher proWdes
vicarious experiences through pictures and other materials. Slio
also gives them many opportunities to use language. Children
malce up a stoo' about the pictures. They compose group let-
ters to thank people for favors or to greet children wlio are ilb
They formulate plans for patties and make rules for games. All
these activities add to thdr ability to understand words, to use
them, to put them together in meanin^ul form. They help chil-
dren leam to organize their ideas and to communlcato them to
others.

Signs and other svrittea material should be used in the kin-
dergarten os much as possible. pro>idcd that they oro functional.
Signs used to identify the child’s worl^ to label equipment, to
caption pictures, or to list tasks to bo done show children that
written symbols ore useful By the end of tho kindergarten year
some children will ask the teacher to write a 'story," which they
dictat(% under the pictures they haw drauTJ.

Books are an important part of tho kindergarten cn>'iioQ-
ment Through his experiences willi tlicin in the kindergarten the
young cliild learns tlut books arc fun, that they arc interesting
and satisfying. A cheerful library comer, where books aro attrac-
tively arranged, in\-ites children to s^nd some time looking at
books. Tho kindergarten teacher can help clnJdrcn leam good
library manners, such os washing ibcir hands before using books,
Itolding books properly, turning pages >vithout tearing them,
and replacing the books carefully on tho shelves. Often tho
occasion arises for calling attention to the fact that wc read from
left to right and from top to hottoJD- Through tho opportunity
afforded by the kindergarten library corner the child de\ clops an
interest in books cs-en though ho caiuiot yet fatlwm their meaning.

On to First Crado 310

Most childrea enter kindergarten with great curiosity about
and interest in reading. If this interest is carefully nurtured, with
maturity and experience, the child can easily de\'elop the skill
later without loss of enthusiasm. When the child has developed a
liking for books he has a large step toward readiness

for reading. If the kindergarten teacher can send her children on
with a desire to learn to read, she has helped the first-grade
teacher immeasxirahly. We do not wait until the child discovers
reading for himself. Rather, we help him grow into it by reading
stories, by providing picture books, and by furnishing opportuni-
ties for the development of oral expression.

Building an extensive background of experience is especially
important in developing readiness for reading. At one time it was
assumed tliat children acquired this experiential background
through reading. Now wo reverse the process; instead of assum-
ing that children get experiences from the printed page, we be-
lieve today that the young child needs to bring experiences to
his reading in order to interpret what he is reading. The very
basis of reading, according to modem investigators, is investing
abstract symbols with meanings already familiar to the child in
oral language. Experiencing and reading go along together
throughout the school years.

Sex Differences in Reoding Readiness

In most tests of general infonnation, from kindergarten to
college, males tank superior to females. According to Good-
enough,'* this may be because boys tend to have more curiosity,
or because they have greater heedom to explore their environ-
ment than girls, who at a very early age are expected to be inter-
ested in things closer to home.

Despite their superior informational background, boys as a

Florence Goodenemgh, DevelopmenUd Tsychotogu, New York, Appleton-
Centuiy-Croits, 1945, pp. 399-401.

32X1 Teaching the Eindeigaitea Child

rule have greater difficulty with many school tasks, particularly
reading and writing. Tliis may he the result of maturational dif*
fcrenccs or it may reflect, as Duncll “ suggests, the fact that
“girls spend more time in many fypes of Quiet play in whicli the
auditory and visual perceptions of words are developed." Accord*
ing to Martin and Stcndlcr,** 'Some of these boy-girl charactcris*
tics such as rate of nuturatioo are obviously duo to inherent dif*
fcrenccs between the sexes. . . . Wo know that a certain degree
of mental maturity is necessary before children can learn to read;
boys, because ihc^ mature more slowly, may reach this point
on an average later than do girls. Yet both are tauglit teadiog at
tho same time and expected to achieve comparable success, fart
of Uie difficulty may be that the slower maturing boy is not ready
for some school learnings and Uiat his initial failure Iwcause of
his lack of readiness lundicaps later progress."

There appeon to be general agreement tlut gitU mature
carUcr than boys, but the extent to which diilcrcaccs are attnb*
utablo to cultural expectations is not measurable, 'niercfuru one
can Only speculate concerning their role in the diilcrcuccs be*
tween boys and girls.

Even tliough we do not yet know tiio reasons for ificso dif*
fcrenccs, we need to recognize than and to plan our teacliing
accordingly. This may mean providing a longer period of prc>
reading activities for boys; it may mean putting leu cinphuis
on written language activities until boys have matured sufficiently
to master the difficult task of wnting. It has oven been suggested
that boys start sclrool at a later age than guls. .Vo solution
ius ya-t bear devised Uut is accepted by all educators and
psycltologists. Until a universally feasible mctliod of liandling
the problem is devclopixi, (his will renuin one of dio uuny
areas in which the classroom teacher will have to take her cue

u DgiuU DuittII, imprpita^ R^ing liMtntdton, YotAtr*. S'. Y., WaU
p. 40.

<*Uinuia Stattia a>Ml C*L» 0. 5Crmltn; t)tX4hpnent. S<nr Y.«k,
iitnourc. C^4<e. roSJ. {s say.

On (o First Grade

from the children themselves, doing whatever seems wise to her
in light of her Jcnowledga of her pupik.

Problems for Discussion

1. Visit a kindergarten and obsen-e the actisitics in which boys
seem to excel as contrasted widi girk. How do boys compare with
girls in skipping? in coloring?

2. How might you plan a study to detemune whether attendance
at kindergarten raises the l.Q. of children? NVhat factors would
need consideration? ^Vhat factors would you have to control?

3. Assume that you are a first-grade teaclser. Plan a visiting day for
kindergartners in your room.

4. What are the ski 1 ]< demanded of children in the curriculum of the
elementary school? Does the curriculum seem to 'favor" boys
or girk in this respect? If you think such favoritism exists, how
would you alter the curriculum or school program to overcome it?

5. It has been suggested by some educators that boys start school a
year later than girk so that they would be belter able to compete
with girls. ^Vhat advantages would result from this plan? What
disadvantages?

6. Mrs. Tate keeps all the books in ber kindergarten on h!^ shelves
where children can't reach them. She says her children come from
poor homes and have no '‘standards" for using them. How would
you answer Mis. Tate?

Suggested Additional Reading

Almy, Millie G., ChSdfen’s Experiences Prior to First Grade and Suc-
cess in Beginning Heodtng. Contributions to Education, No. S 54 >
Nevv York, Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia
University, 1949.

Bergamini. Yolanda, and Walter Swanson, “Does Kindergarten Make
a Difference?” School £xecutioe, December 1954, LXXIV, 54-5S.

Cowin, Shirley H., "Reading Readiness Through Kindergarten Ex-
perience.” Elementary Schmd Journal, October 1951, LU, 96-99.

Harrison, M. LucOe, “Getting Them Iteady to Read." N. E. A. Journal,
February 1931, XL, lo&oS.

322 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

Herr, Selma “The Effect of fre-Flrsl-Grade Training upon Beading
Bendiness and Reading Achievement among Spanish-American Chil-
dren." Journal of Educational Psychology, February 1946, XXXVII,
87-102.

Hymes, James L., Jr., “But He Can Learn Facts." Education, 1954,

LXXIV, 572-74.

Knowing When Children Are Ready to Learn. Washington, D, C.,
Association for Childhood Education International, 1947.

Monroe, Marion, Growing into Reading. Chicago, Scott, Foresman &
Company, 1951.

Pratt, Willis E., “A Study of the Differences in the Prediction of
Reading Success of Kindergarten and Nonkindergarten Children."
Journal of Educational Research, March 1949, XLII, 525-33.

Readiness for Learning. Washington, D. C.. Association for Childhood
Education International, 1941.

Readiness for Reading and Related Language Arts. Chicago, National
Council of Teachers of Engldli, 1950.

Reiss, AniU. Number Readiness in Research! A Survey of the Litera-
ture. Chicago, Scott, Foresman & Company, 194S.

Schoeppe, Hcimina A., “The Reading Readiness Program la the
Kindergarten." Education, February 1954, LXXIV, 6, 377-61.

Sutton, Rachel S.. "A Study of Certain Factors Associated with Read-
ing Readiness in the fGndergarten." Journal of Educational Re-
search, March 1935, XLVIll, SSi'S®.

On to First Grade 323

Appendix

Publishers of Informational MaterioU

American Association for Mental Deficiency, Kiansfield Depot, Cono.
Publishes a directory of private schools for retarded children, giving
location of schools, lands of children accepted, and charges.
PricB 75f.

Association for Childhood Education International, laoo 15th St. NW.,
Washington 5, D. C. Publishes the monthly (September through
May) Childhood Education and occasional pamphlets related to the
teaching of childreiu A publicarion list is available on request

Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development isoi 15th
St. NW., Washington 6, D. C. Publishes the monthly (October
through May) Educational Leadership, containing many articles
conceming the problems of teadiers and schools; occasional pam-
phlets; and a yearbook.

Child Study Association of America, izz E. 4th St, New York 21.
Publishes Child Study, A Quarterly Journal of Parent Education.
containing many articles on mental by^ene; and occasional pam-
phlets.

National Association for Mental Health, Inc., 1790 Broadway, New
York 10. Publishes the quarterly Understanding the Child, an
excellent source of information concerning mental hygiene written
for the layman.

National Association for Nursery Education, Roosevelt College, 430
Michigan Ave., Chicago 5. Publishes a quarterly bulletin containing

324

articles on nurseiy-sdiool proUems and legislation aUectiog Aem;
and occasional pamphlets.

Knlional Association for Retarded Children, gg University PL, New
York 3. Publishes booklets and other infonaation helpful to parents
of retarded duldrcn.

Public Affairs Committee fne,, sa £• sStb St., New York 16. Publishes
brief and simply written materials on subjects of general public
concern, including several recent pamphlets on education and under*
standing children.

United States Children’s Bureau, Supt. of Documents. U. S. Cov. Print-
ing OiE<», Washington, D. C. Publishes The Child, a bimonthly
magazine containing summaries of health and welfare activities in
behalf of childrent and a series of free pamphlets on child cate.

United States Oi&ce of Education, Federal Security Agency, Washing*
ton, D. C. Publishes the monthly School Life, pamphlets on various
aspects of the school program, and periodical summaries of informa*
tion related to the extension of nursery schools and kindergarteas.

Selected Films and Filmstrips'

A Child IVent Forth. Brandon Films Inc., aoo W. 57th St., New York,
AO min,, b&sv. Depicts the idea of freedom within senile bounds
by sliowing a child in camp; emphasizes the role of camp life in
the child's growtL

A Class for Tommij. Bailey Films Inc., 65®!) Ue Longpre Ave., Los
Angeles 28, 30 min., b&w. Story of an experimental training class
for young mentally retarded childteD.

A Day in the Life of a Five-Tear-Old. Bureau of Publicatioas, Teachers
College, Colombia 17., 535 W. rsoth St, Neiv York, ao min., b4w.
Shows children interpreting the world about them and the teacher's
role fa guiding them through a happy and satisfying day.

A Long Time to Crow, Part IL Film Library, New York U., Waslifag-
ton Square, New York, 35 min., Wtw. Shows four* and five-year-old
children at work and play.

Answering the Childs "Why." Encydopaedia Britannica Films, S02 E.
44th St, New York 17, 13 min., b*w. Dramatizes situations in
which chiliiren meet with positive and negative althides toward
their questions and suggests effect on the child of each.

> Most of these films are available at umvera^ centers.

Appendix 325

Baby Meets Ilis Parents. Encyclopaedia Sritannica Filins, 202 E. 44th
SL, New York 17, 11 min., b&w. Shows how personality is influ-
enced by human relationships and environmental factors experienced
during the £rst years of life.

The Child Grows Up. Knowledge Builders, 31 Union Sq., New York.
10 min., b&w. Describes the activities of a noimal child from one
year old to six years old, emphasiziiig habit training and proper play
and equipment for developing mind and body.

Children Growing Up with Other People. United World Films, Inc.,
1445 Park Ave., New York, 30 min., b&w. Illustrates the stages of
growth in children from self-centeiedness to realization of rcsponsi-
bihty to others.

Design for Crowing. U. S. Information Agency, 250 W. syth SL, New
^ork, 33 min., color. Shows the role of the school in developing
creativity in children.

Family Circles. McGraw-Hill Films, 330 W. 42nd St., New York, 31
min., b&w. Depicts the interplay of home and fanuly in the develop-
ment of children.

Fears of Children. Film Library, New York U., Washington Sq., New
York, 30 mm., b&w. Shows conflict between parents in handling a
flve-year-old and the effect of this conflict on the child.

Finger Pointing. Film Library, New York U., Washington Sq., New
York, sli min., color. Shows experienced and inexperienced children
using finger paints and some techniques for stimulating the creative
energy of children.

Frustraiion Play Techniques. F ilm Library, New York U., Washington
Sq., New York, 35 min., b&w. Shows normal personality develop-
ment in young children and special techniques for diagnosing
normal behavior.

He Acts His Age, McGraw-Hill Filins, 330 W. 4znd SL, New York,
15 min., b&w. Shows typical behavior of children from ages one
to fifteen; shows fliaL as the child grows, his interests, activities,
and emotions change.

House of the Child. Contemporary Films Inc., 13 E. 37th St, New
York, 25 min., b&w. Shows the pro^am for children three to nine
years old in bicultural school in New York City.

How to Make arui Use the Felt Board. Teaching Aids Laboratory, Ohio
Slate U., Columbus, 53 fr., color, ft. Tells how to make this useful
teaching device.

326 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

Itulicidual Differences. ^fcCraM''Htll 330 \V. 42 b< 3 St, New
York, 23 min., b&w, Tire case study of a shy slow child contrasted
with the more socially adept older brother; demonstrates the need
for recognition of diScrcnccs among children and the role of the
school in meeting them.

Its a Small World. Communications Materials Center, Columbia U.
Press, 2960 Broadway, New York. 38 min., b&w. Shows tiro spon-
taneous reactions of Quxscry-school duldxcn during an entire day.
KJmfergorfcn and Your Child. Wayne State U, Detroit, 40 fr., b&w, fs.
Shows the objectives and the activities of the kindergarten and how
parents can help to adjust their chdd to school
Let Us Crow in Human Undemanding. Ifarmon Foundation Inc., 140
Nassau St, New Yorl^ 30 min., b&w, sL Shows how specialists in
child development, rvorldng with parent^ discover what dnldren
need for wholesome development in the modcni comojunity,

Li/a tcilh /union March of Time, Child Study Association of America
tsa C. 74th St., New Yort^ 18 min., b&w. Shows the typical
day of a child, following liitn through sketchy Nvashing, a wolfed
breakfast and a dawdhng trip to school; stresses the need for devel>
opment of each child's potentialities.

Prvfaao to Ufa. United World Films Inc., 1445 Park As e., New York,
sg miiL, binv. Shovvs the infuence of parental expectarions and atti-
tudes on the child.

Heport in Primary Colors. Virgiiiia Education Board Department,
Richmond, 33 min, color. Shows creabiv actiWUes in the primary
grades, stressing the integration of these acdvities with other school
e;^eriences.

Slii/nm. McCraw-llill Films, 330 W. 42od St., New York, 23 min ,
b&vv. Shows how three shy children became part of a group.

Social Development. McGraw-Hill Films, 330 W. 42nd Sl, New York,
t6 min., b&w. An anal>sis of (he sodal behavior of children at
various age levels, showing (he underlyiDg changes ia behavior
patterns as the child develops.

Story Telling: Can You Tell It in Order? Coronet Fdms, 4S8 Madison
Ave., New York, ai min., b&w. Shows a teacher using a puppet
clown, a blackboard, and mounted pictures in teaching primary-
school children to organize events in sequence when telling a story.
Teacher Observation of School Children. Metropohtan Life Insurance
Co., Inc., I Madison Ave., New Yorls fe* accompanied by 33^ ipm
record. Shows how (he teacher observes children for signs of illness.

Appendix 327

The Child at Play. Bureau of PublicatioQs, Teachers College, Columbia
525 ^V. I20th St., New Vorh; iS min., b&tv. Depicts a day in
the life of a child, stressing his spontaneous play.

The Fmsfrofing Fours and Fascinating Fivet. McGraw-Hill Filins,
330 W. 42Dd St., New York, aa min., b&w. Shows the development
of the child from almost total dependence on adults to vigorous
self-assertion and increasing independence.

The Kindergarten Way Is to Learn Each Day. Books That Talk Pro-
gram, C. R. Peterson, San Diego, Cal., 20 min., color, over 60 fr., fs.
Demonstrates the benefits of dramatic play, show-and-tell. manipu-
lative acdviUes, educational trips, storytelling, and other kinder-
garten activities.

This Is Robert, Parts I and II. Film Library, Nerv York U., IVashing-
ton Sq., Nesv York, 80 min., b&w. Shows the development of an
aggressive child from early nursery sdrool to the first year in public
school.

Tips for Teachers. Jam Kandy Organization. aSat E, Grand Blvd.,
Detroit 11, so min., b&%v. Explains tbe role of the teacher in the
learning process and shows that tbe teacher needs to be a showman,
a salesman, and an actor to help children learn.

Understanding Children’s Play. Film library. New York U., Washing-
ton Sq., New York, 10 min., b&w. Shows that adults can guide
children more effectively if they understand the nature of play.

328 Teaching the Kindergarten Child

Index

Ab^lutist point of view, 37-39 Art fCont)

See also Autboritariao point of See also Creative experiences
view Art instruction

Abstnettonx, ability to handle, attituJe of teacher totvard. 93
6o>6i poals of, 99

Age, at regisCration, so, 14 A^ciation for Childhood Eduea*

Agnession, $4*5$ Intemational, »8, »8z

Ai^ as AssodatSoo of School Adminlstra*

Alice in Wonderland, 159 tors, 216

Almy, Millie, a6. a? "Associative play," gi, 166

Anderson, D.. go Attendance

Anderson, John, 76 requirements for, 23, 24

Animals value of, 28

in Mndergartcn, 243 Attration span, 45, S3, 187*68

leaniing about, 247 Audio-visual aids, 248

Approval Auditory discriminatioa, games to

atmosphere of, 68 develop, 149*50, 312-13

chUd's need for, 47 Auditory handicaps, 283*84

in creative expenences, loz and Modergartea experience.

Arithmetic z/O

under Montessori, 8 and paroits, 278

readiness for, aSz, 263 and readiness, 311

See also Quantitative concepts seco^'zing, 207, 271-72
Art per thousand childreo, 26S

budding interest in, 157 Authoritarian point of view, 37'

creative experiences in, 99*117 39> 44

developmental stages in, soo^ and authoritative point of view.

103 226

interpretation of, 101 and child-development point of

stanoi^s of achievement in, view, 40

103, 104-05 Autlroritativo point of view, 226

as subjective experience, loo-ot Averill, Lawrence A., 137

329

Baby talk, 143
Baker, Harry, 286
Barrows, Sarah, 144
Behavior, standards of, 232
from absolutist point of view,
38

from child-development ipoint
of view, 40

Behavior problems, 280-81
causes of, 74

and developmental stages, 190
and home visits, 302
and parents, 278
recomizing, 271
teacher’s concept of, 74
per thousand children, 268
See also Discipline
Bergamini, Y., 317
Bienstock, S. F., 125
Bird, Grace, 31
Birthdays, 199, 203
Blindness- See Visual handicaps
Stocks

and dramatic play, 132
popularity of, 173-74 . 175
types of, 112
Blough, Clenn 0 ., 249
Blon', Susan, 19
Boelte, Marie, 19 -
Books, 61. 81, 319-20
Bteckenridge, Marion, 209
Building activities. See Kocks
Bureau of the Census, 20, 2X
Burnham, William, 71
Burr, James, 240
Bush, Robert Nelson, 76

C.A., 58
Calendars

homemade, 265
interest in, 62

Cantor, Nathaniel Freeman, 33
Caswell, Hollis L., 227
Celebrations, 199-204
Center of interest, 83-84

around safety practices, 219-20
social-studies. 187, 194
Certification of teachers, 25
Chalk, drawing with, 108
Chemistry, learnings about; 244,
£47

Child,

esnotioi

56

36,45.51-65 . . ,

tional characteristics or,

55 *

intellectual characteristics of,
57, 6o-6i
interests of. 61-62
linguistic characteristics of, 63-

64

physical characteristics of, 52-
54

play development of, 51
relationship of, to adults, 52,
67

social characteristics of, 54*S6
well-adjusted, igo
Child-development point of view,
11, 12-16,36-48

Christmas, 83, 107, 199, 200-02,
296

Civic projects, 292, 293
Oay

unds of, 110*11
and ovenastidiousness, 115-16
assobtaiyplay, 175
as unrestrained activity, 109
Cleanliness, and health, 213
Cleanup. 84-86
in daily schedule, 91, 92, 93
OQ fint day, 94
Clocks, homemade, 264-65
interest in, 62

Cole, Natalie Robinson, 105
Collections, 243

Color perception, sex differences
in, 62

Coloring, 81, loS
Comenius, John Amos, 3
Community

excursions in, 194-95, 197, 199
and school, g, 291-94
Conferences with parents, 299-
302

Convulsive disorders per thousand
chiidren, 268
Co-operation, 224
Co-operative play

activities encoura^g, 175
as developmental stage, 51,
165-66

J33, 174

S 30 Index

Counling, asG-Ga
interest in, 62, 163
readiness for, 255
under “3-lVs approach,” 27
Crayoning, 81, 108
Creative experiences
in art, 98-117
’ guidance in, 102
and holidays, 199
in music and uramatic play,
120-133

ami sacncc program, 24s
Creative wtk
displaying, 106-07
distortion in, loo-oa
Crippled, per thousand cluldreo,
a6S

Cridcism, of peers, 66-S7
Curriculum
science, 246-50
social-studies, 186-88
Cutting. 111-12
Cynib^, homemade, 131

Da Feltre, Vittorino, 203
Dalglicsh, Alice, 153
Dancing, 126-28
as communication, 98
Oavls, E. A., 139
Dawdling

coping with, 228
of four-year-old, 52
Daws, Helen, 32
Deafness. See Auditory handicaps
Oemocra^, 223-36
Democratic values

and child-developmeDt point of

view, 14-15
Dewey and, 9

learning, 192-93. 200, 223-36
Dental defects, 209
Department of Agriculfure, 251
Department of Health, Edocatioo
and Welfare, ao
Depravity of man, 3 , .
Developmental point of view^ See
Cnild-developmcnl point of

Developmental stages, in play,
Deviant See Exceptional child

Dewey, John, 9-12, 224
Digestive disturbances. 53
Disdpline,

cliudien’s suggestions for, 231-
, 3*

dunng gjunes, 181
by ismating child, 233
or quarrelers, 169
anu teacher’s sense of humor,
73

Discussions, 224-30
Diseases. See nincsses
Displaying creative worl^ 106-07
Disfortioa in creative worl; roo-

Dr. DolilUe, 144
Dolls. 132, 17s
Dramatic play, 131-33
around centers of interest, 84
as communication, 98
in daily schedule, 81
and health program, 214
interpretation of, 132
leaniD^ through, 163
and socialization, 193-94
of stories, 159

Ora^ving as communication, 98
Drums. Iiomemade. 130
DurreU, Donald, 321

Eerlu Childhood Education, 272
Earth, learnings about, 247
Easier, 83, 107, 203
Education

of deviants, 267-88
go^ of, 223-25
Egotism, 51, 60, 136-37
Eisenherg, Philip, 228
Eiserer, Paul E., 69
Elementary Science and How to
Teach It. 249
"Eletelephony," 144-45
Etnotional climate of classroom,
68, 70

Emotionm needs of child
on first day, 94
teacher's part in filling, 68
Emotional problems
of auditory handicapped. 284
and behavior problems, 280
expressed in ah, 101

Index S31

Emotional problems (Ck}nt.)
of ment^y retarded, 284-83
of ortbopedicaliy handicapped,
S&7

of speech liandicapped, sS6
and stuttering, 142
Emotional release
through painting, lot, io3
through play, 165
En^ish, Horace, 33, igr, 285,
28S

Enrollments, ao-22
Environment
and CTOwth, 4a
and Bd^t and weight, 52
of learning, 45-48
Epileptics per thousand children.
268

Equipment

art, }oG, io8*r7
cleanup, 8a-Ss
for diwatlc play, 132
on first day, 94

ausicah See Musical instru-
ments

play, 172, 17376
and quarreling, 170, 173
for rest period, &o-8g
safety in using, 217-13
scientific, 250-51
for visually nandlcapped, 283
Evaluation, 86-87

in daily schedule, 91, 92
Eaceptional child, 267-88
identification of, 27174
integratioa of, with normal
children, 275-279
parents of, 277-80
school’s responsibility for, 270-

^ 71

Escuiszons, 194-gg

for creative experiences, 106
planning of, by children, ig^
96

teaching science through, 248
Exercises

for auditory sensitivity, 149-50
for language abihty, 145-46,
M7

for mental alertness, 314-15
for motor abilities, 311-12

Exercises (Cont)

for quantitative concepts, 257-
60

for visual discrimination, 313
See also Games
Experimental approach, 239-42
Ej^riments, scientific, 240-41,
242-43. 244, 245. *47. *48,
*49

Family. See Home; Parents
Faiw^ L., 174, 175
Fatigue, signs of, 83
Fears, of five-year-old, 55
Filfl) strips, 325-28
Films, 325-28

Fmancial support of kindergar-
tens, 22, 23-25

Finger paint, redpes for, 109-xio
Finger painting

and overfasbdiousness. 115-16
time for, 81

Finger paintings, care of, 117
Finger plays, 257-60
First day of school, 93-96
Pint grade, 27-28, 262, 263, 263,
308-22

See also Beadiness
Fish and Wildhfe Service; 252
Flad:, Marjorie, gs
FoUovv-up activities

after excursions, 198-99
of science program, 245
Forest, Ilse, 143, i85, 204, 316
Forest Service, 251
Foshay, A. Wellesley, 227
Fractions, learning, 263
“Free play," 6, 181-82
Freedom

under child-development phi-
losophy, 44
and license, 39
Fioebel, 5-7
and Dewey, 10

and kindergarten in United
States, 18
and Montessoii, 9
and Rousseau, 4
on self-activity, 11
on social values, ^

"Functional reality, 112-13

332 Index

Games, 176-81

for ftuditoiy discrimioatioii,

312-13

lor auaito^ scnsibvity, 249-50
in daily scfvcdulc, 90
and Froebel, 6
for Janguags abiL'ty,

147

for mental alertness, 314-15
for motor abilities and percep-
tual acuity, nog
for orthapcdicaTiy handicapped,
487

See also Exercises
Gama and /(nghu for Speech De-
velopment, 144
Cans, noma, a6, ay
Ccsell, Arnold, 37, 38, sa, 60
Cift.gjvinc' «oi
"Gifts," 6

"Going homo" time, go, ga
Gooa manners," 031
Coodenough, Florence L., 31,

_ 102,288,320

Coodykoonta. D.. ag
Great Didactic, The, 3
Groupings, ability to peredvo, a6i
Crov^

and di^d-devctopment point of
vie\v, 14, 40

and environment of Icaming. 46
inducnce of play on. 162-63
intellectual, 57, 60-61
opportunity for, 26
physical, 52-54
principles of, 41-43
role of guidance in, 44
satisfactory, 43
social, 54-56
Guidance, 44-45

and center of interest, 84
in creative work, 102-04, 106
and tosez-faire philosophy, 40,
44

in making decisions, 224-30
role of, in growth, 44
and self-direction, 82
and socialization, igx-gS
vs. teaching, 77

Hall, K. H., 144
Halloween, 83, 107, igg, 20a
Handedness, 56-57, 31a
Handicapped child
defiriition of, 24
schools for, 23-25
See also Exceptional diild
Handicaps, multiple, 275-76
Hanukk^ 201
Harding, Lowry. 240
Harris, William T., ig
HaUrvick, La Berta, 20
Health

as coal of kindergarten, 27
of kindergartners, 53, 208-12
principles of, 212-14
Health problems, 287
Health program, ao&id
Health services, 2i4-i(>

Hearing handicaps. See Auditory
handicaps

"Heartbreak School," 279
Heider. Fritx, 270
Heider, C. M., 270
Height, 52, 207, 213
ller^'ty
and mwth, 44
and height and weight, 52
Hildreth, Gertrude, 57, 83
Ilistoiy of kindergarten, i-i6,
* 94-95

Hoeier, C., 31
Hobdays, 199-204
as centers of interest, 83
and hospital decorations, 292,

293

Holmes, F. B., 246
Ilome

and behavior problem^ 28a-

81

and health, 209-11
and langiuge, 138. 141
relationships of, with school,
*95

and sociabzatian, 234
See also Parents
Home visits. 302
Homelike atmosphere, 47-48
Hospital acbvibes, 292, 293
Huber, Miriam B., 156

Index 333

Huggett, Albert 249
H>iQes, Jr^ James, 297

Identificatioii, of eiceptional diil-
dr^ 270, 275
ng. Fiances, 37
Illnesses

diagno^ of, 207
discussing prevention of, 213
effect of, on growth, 4a
of kindergartners, 53
prevention of, 274
lUustratiOQS. book, iSS'Sff
Imaginative play. See Dramatic
play

Independence, 44-43, 224-30,
234-35 ^ .

atmosphere conducive to, 191
under hlontessori, 8
Individual child, respect for, 233
Individual differences, 64-65
in appreciation of stories. 152-

S3

in creativity, ^-99

in mwth. 42-43

in language development, 139-

an^ hfootessori, 7
in need for approval, 47
in number readiness, 234*53
and Festalozzi, 4
in play development, gi, 167
in rhythm activities,
and Itousseau. 4
and social-studies experiences,
187-SS. 190
Inoculations, 214
Instituthnis oratoriae, 2
Interoalixadon of behavioral
standards, 232

Iowa Soldiers' Home, study of, 32
I.Q.

and kindergarten esperierree,

anI'xiJL. 57-59
of visually handicapped, 270

Jacobs, Lelond, 24a
Jersild, Arthur T., ag, 33. 12s
139, 246

Jingle The, 144

Juice. See Lunch

Jungle g>’ms, 174-75, 21S-19

Just So Siories, 159

Kawin. C-. 31

Kilpatrick; William H., 223
Ki^ergaiten
function of, 23-2S
for handioapp^ 23-25, 279
lustoiy of, i-i6, 294-95
inffuence of, on education, 15-

i6

papulation of, 20-22
in rural are^. 23
state provisions tor, 22-23
in Umted States, 18-20
value of, 28-34
Kindergaitser. See Child
Kiasne, Hecky, 128

Laissez-faire point of view, 37, 40,
44 .

Lane, Robert, 157

Languap dev^pment, 63-64,

136-59

games and exerdses for, 14S*
46. 147

individual differences in, 138-

and intelligence, 140
and kindergarten experience, 32
and quarreling 1&S69
and science 345

Leadership. 224, 235-36
Learning

cumulative, 241
and 'matuiatk^ 39-6o
role of teacher in, 67, 76-77
and scnentific method, 241-42
Left-handedness; 36-57
Lego] obligatioa of teacher on ex-
cursion, 197
Lenski, Lois. 95
Library, 319-20
License, and freedom, 39
Lisping, 143
Likening habits, 149-50
Living in a group, 230-36
Lofting. Hugh, 144
Lowenfeld, Viktor, 103

334 Index

Lunch, 89

clidd's decisions regoiding, 229
on first day, 95

for malnourished children, 21 O*
11

mothers’ assistance >vith, 29S
time for, 91, 92, 93

M.A. and I.O., 57-59

of mentally handicapped, 24
Malnutrition, 209-11, 288
Maracas, homemade, 131
Martim William, 321
Materials. See Equipment

and learning, 59-60
and readiness, 311
See oiso Growth
Maturity, and readiness, 310
Maurer, Katharine. 31
MelUnger, Bonnie 155
Memory span, 45
Mental alertness, games to de-
velop, 314-15
Mental growth curve, 57
Mental health
definirion of, 70
as goal of Idndergarten, 277
Mentally gifted, per thousand
children, 268
Mentally retarded, 281-83
educability of, 24
idenrificabon of, 271
language ability ot, 140
parents of, 278
physical achievement of, 164
school for, 279-80
per thousand children, 26S
MeiriU'Palmer tests, 30
Middle^lass values, 74*75
Modeling material, recipe for, 111
Money values, 263-64
Montessori, Maria, 7-9
Mothers. See Parents
Motor activity

in daily schedule, 81
developmental stages of, 53-54
as keynote of behavior, 13
and lunch, ^
and rest, 88

ktotor coordination
of age groups, 55
and art work, 115
in creative egression. 100
exercises to develop, 311-12
of five-year-old, 53
and maturation, 60
and outdoor play, 174
and reading readiness, 311
Moz^ W. A., 12^

Mulb'ple birth, ana language de-
velopment, 139

Muscular coordination. See Motor
coordination
Vbisic.

and auditory discrimination,

buSding^ mterest in, 157
in daily schedule, 81, go
experiences hi, 120-33
on first day, gS
Froebel's emphasis on, S
See also Sio^g

Musical ability, mdergarten ex-
perience and, 33
kfusicai instiumeots, I2t, 123,
126, 129-31

My Pedagopeal Creed, 11

National Bureau of Standards, 251
National College of Education,
3JS

National Education Association,
26

National Society for the Study of
Education, 246-47, 267, 268,
270

Neatness, 228-29
Noninterference, 39
’‘Normal" child, 41
Noonal children and deviants,
275-77. *79
"Normal range, 41
NoriD^ 305
Number

awareness of, 163, 253

^rrti'r^nt Olid OrdiflaT USCS of,
262

concept of, 253

See aua Quantitative concepts

Index 835

Numter activities
readiness for, 27
and science program, 245
Number objectives, 234-56
Number ^tem, 256
Nurse^ rhymes, 257-60
Nutrition, aog-n

Orbus sensualium pictua (Come-
nius), 3

Orthopedic handicaps, 287
Otto, Henry, 219
Outdoor puy
in cold weather, 93
in daJy schedule, 02, ^
and large-muscle devel^ment.

need for, 80
safety during, 218-19

painting
clothes for, 293
as communicanoo, 98
In daily sch^ule, 81
as emodooal release, lot, 108
populaii^ of, 175
Papier m&ch4, 113-14
"Parallel play," 51, 166
Pareot’Sebool rehUoasbip, 291*
306
Parents

and children's health needs,
208, 210-11, 213
of deviants, 277-80
on escursioas; zgS
in kindergarten, 48, 95
Fasting, 111-12
Peabody, Elizabeth, ig
Perceptual ability, 314-16
Perham, Beatrice. 123
Permissions, for excursions, 197-

9S

Permissiveness, 37
Festalozzi, Joha^ Heinrich, 4-3
“Peter Rabbit,” 93, 153, 154
Peterson, Harvey A-, 30, 31
Physical examinations, 273
Physical growth curve, 57
Physics, learnings about, 244, 247

Ptou/e# /nr childrajx 207. 255-56

Fitdi discrimination, 122
Plannin g

in dauy schedule, gi, 92
kindergartners’ role in, 81-83,
224-30
Plants

in kindergarten, 243
learnings about, 247
Plasticene, iio-ii
Plato, 1-2
Play, 162-182

d^ebpmental stages in, 31,
165-67

dramatic. See Dramatic play
Froebel's emphasis on. 5
functions of, 13. 162-65
interpretation of, 171-73
of o^opedically handicapped,
287-88

solitary. 167, I7S
See also Games
Pby therapy, 271-72
Playgroimd equipment, 175
Playmates, choosing, 54
Poetry, 144-45. t56-58
to develop auditory discrimina-
tion, 312

Prescott, Daniel, 68
Frobfem-solviog approach, 239-42
for building self-reliance, 246
example of, 240-41
Problems, behavior. See Behavior
problems

Progress report, 86
Aogresrive education. 9-12, 27
PTA. 297-99

PunishmenL See Discipline
Puppets, 114-15

Quantitative concepts, 253-63
application of, 262-63
Froebel's emphasis on, 6
rhymes to develop, 257-60
Quarreling, 16S-70
and social growth, 54
Quintilian, 2

Rannells, E. W., 100
Rapid-recognition programs, 315-
26

386 Index

ReacUness
concept of, 310-11
emotional factors in, 317-18
and expericQtia] cau^und,
318-20

mental factors in, 316-17
for number learning, 255
physical factors in, 311-16
lor reading, 27. 3a, 33, 151-S*.
316

sex differences in, 320-22
social factors in, 317
for writing, 150-51
Reading

formal instruction in, 316
and Montessori, 8
readiness for, 27. 32, 33, 151-
52, 316

speech defects and. 287
and "3-R’s approach,' 27
“Reconslruciioa of experience,"
10. 28
Records
anecdotal, 305
cumulative, 304, 305
of deviants, 305-06
of pareot-teacfaer coruerenoe^
301-02

phonograph, 128-9
purposes of, 304
as reflection of school phuos-
ophy, 303-08
Red Cross, 293
Redl, Fritz, 74
Regression, 43, 44
Reporting systems, 302-06
Republic, 1

Respiratory disturbances, 53, 274
Responsibility, development of,

223-36

Rest, 87-89

in daily schedule, 91, 9a, 93
on first day, 95
for overtired childreo, 2x1
Rhymes, 257-60
Rliythm

and art materials, 107-08
development of, 124, 126
Rhythm activities, 126-38
in daily schedule, gi, 92, 93
on first day, 95

Rhythm band, 129
Rhythm sticks, homemade, 131
Richards, Laura, I44
Roberts, K., 30
Roll call, gi, 92
Roman theory of educadon, 2
Rosenquist, Lucy Lynde, 255
Rote counting, 255. 256
Rote learning, 36
Rousseau, jean-Jacques, 4, 5
Routme. 48, 212, 215
See also Schedules
Rural areas, kindergartens in, 23
Russell. David, 99
Ryan, W. Carson, 292

Safety, 216-21
of deviants, 270, 274
on excursions, 196-97
as CTaJ of kiride^arCen, 27
and policeman, 292
and school patrol, 219
Schedules, 79-96. 208
Rmetioas of, 79
pUrmiog of, by children, 230
typical. 91-93
Sdwol

for exceptional children, 279
mk of, in conunuoJty, sgi'g4
See also Kindergarten
Schubert, F., 124
Sdence experiences, 238-51
applications of, 248
Gontrihub'on of, to growth, 245
Science Kit, 250
Sdentific method, 239-42
Scfeodfic problem, deficitzon of,

241

Scissors, 111-1X2
Seashore, H. C., 120
"Self-activity,” 6, 11
“Self concept," 191-92
Self-direction, 224-30
Sense of humor, 72-73
Sense training, 8
Sensory perceptions, 3, 4
Service organtxatzons, 293
Sewing. 114
Seze difieiences
hi color perceptions, 62

Index 337

Sex differences (Cent.)
in coloring and cutting, 53, 112
in language development, 138
in play interests, 175-76
in reading xeadkiess, 320-22
in skipping 53
in stuttering, 285
“Sharing time," 149
Sheehy, Emma D., 122, 127
Sherer, Lorraine, 261
Sheviakov, George V., 74
“Show-and-tell time,” 149
Shurz, Mrs. Carl, 18
Signs, iat labeling work, 329
Singing, 122-26

as communication, 98
in daily schedule, gi, 92, 93
Froebd and, 6
Slides, 218

Slow learning. See Mentally re-
tarded

Social ^erieoces, 230*36
child's need for. 46
through play, 164-65
Sodal-studies experiences, 185-
204

in community, 294
and science program, 240
Social-studies curriculum, i 86-83
Social-studies program
goal of, 193

and health and safety, 206
Sodali2:atioa of child

as goal of kindergarten, 27
and language ability, 141
See aho Social-studies expeii-

Sodoeconomic status

and attitude toward school,
298-99

and behavior problems, 302
and health, 209-10
and language, 138-g
and money values, 2G3
and quarreling, 169-70
teachers, 74-75
Solitary play, 167, 175
Songs for children, 124-26
Soimds, experimentiDg with, 6 q
Space relationships, 264-65

Specialists, 207, 215, 275
Speech, correct; 142-46
of teacher, 147

Speech handicaps, 57, 142-43,
284-87

per thousand children, 268
Stamina, of teacher, 73
Stanford-Binet scales, 30, 58
Starkweather. E., 30
Stegemao, William H., 84
Stendler, Celia, 26, 27, 321
Stincb£eld-Uawk, S., 270
Storage, of art equipment, 117
Stories

to develop counting ability, 261
selecting, 152-54
Story and Verse for Children, 156
Storytelling, 151-56
on first day, 95
listening habits during, 149
and reading readiness, 151*52
time for, 90, 92, 93
Strang, Ruth, 33, 126, 142
Stuttering, 142-43, 288
and handedness, 57
Superintendent of jl>ocuffleots,
» 5 i

Swanson, W., 317
Symonds, Perciv^ M., 71

Talent, musical, 120
Tambourines, homemade, 131
Teacher, 67-77

characteristics, of 71-77
as model of correct speech, 148
as model of safe conduct, 221
personality of, 67-71
“prestige-value" of; 69
Teacher-pupil relationship, 67-77
Team games, 167
Teeth, maturation of, 52-53
Temper outbursts, 56
Thanksgiving, 202
Thompson, H., 6a
“3-R’s approa^,” 27.28
Tune, sense of, 137
Time sequences, 62-63, 264-63
Toileting, 91, 92. 93
Totalitarianism, 223, 224
Traffic lights, 219-20

SS8 Index

Train, as center of interest, 24S-
46

Triangles, homemade, 131

Undernourished, 208, a88

Universe, learnings about 247

University of Florida laboratory
School, 318

Urbanization, and family, 2$

Valentine’s Day activib'es, 199,
202-03, 296

Van Alstyne, Dorodiy, sg, i7-4*

17s

Vincent E. Lee, 209

Visual discrimination, 313

Visual handicaps, 283
identification of, 207, 271
and kindergarten experience,
270

and readiness, 311
per thousand children, 268

Vocabulary

average, 63-64, 136
devel^ing, 146-48
and stuttering, 28s

Vocal range, average, 125

Walldag, age for, 41
Washing bands, gr, 92
Weather Bureau, 2S1
Weaving, 124
Weight

average, of kindergartners, 52
discussing, 213
measuring, 207
Wellman, Beth, 30, 31
White House Conference Report
267

"Whole child," 46. 68. 70
WiU^, Roy D., 288
Wills, Clarice, 84
Witty, Paul, 72
Wood, Alice L-, 144
Wood, working with, 109
Work-play period, 80-81, gi, ga
Wnting

coordizurion required /or, 61
Montessori and, 8
readiness for. 27, 150-51
teacher's, 196 _

under "3-R s approach, 27

Index 339